Augustus

Early life Main article: Early life of Augustus Further information: Julio-Claudian family tree An idealized Roman sculpted portrait of Octavius as a teenager, possibly produced posthumously or when he was much older, now located in the Vatican Museums [ 1 ] Octavian was born as Gaius Octavius in Rome on 23 September 63 BC, [ 2 ] [ a ] at a family property on the Palatine Hill . [ 4 ] His father, Gaius Octavius , came from a moderately wealthy equestrian family of the gens Octavia . [ 5 ] He ascended the cursus honorum [ 6 ] and served as a proconsular governor of Macedonia . [ 7 ] [ b ] His family was from Velitrae , [ 10 ] near Rome, [ 11 ] where his son spent part of his childhood . [ 12 ] The younger Octavius's mother, Atia , was a niece of Julius Caesar. [ 13 ] Denarius from 44 BC, showing Julius Caesar on the obverse and the goddess Venus on the reverse of the coin. Caption: CAESAR IMP. M. / L. AEMILIVS BVCA After Octavius's father died in 59 BC [ 14 ] or 58 BC, [ 15 ] his mother married Lucius Marcius Philippus , [ 16 ] who was elected as consul in 56 BC. [ 17 ] When Octavius's grandmother Julia , sister of Julius Caesar, died in 52 or 51 BC, Octavius delivered her funeral oration, his first public appearance. [ 18 ] A Greek slave tutor named Sphaerus educated him in reading, writing, arithmetic, and Greek . Octavius later freed Sphaerus and gave him a state funeral in 40 BC. [ 19 ] As a teenager, he studied philosophy under Areios of Alexandria and Athenodorus of Tarsus , Latin rhetoric under Marcus Epidius , and Greek rhetoric under Apollodorus of Pergamon . [ 20 ] Julius Caesar had formed an informal alliance with Pompey and Crassus in 60 BC, [ 21 ] but by 49 BC it had fallen apart and Pompey and Caesar were fighting a protracted civil war . [ 22 ] In 47 BC, after Octavius donned the toga virilis and became an adult citizen, [ 23 ] Caesar had him elected as pontiff , replacing the slain Lucius Ahenobarbus . [ 24 ] The following year, Octavius presided over the Greek games commemorating the opening of Caesar's Temple of Venus Genetrix . [ 25 ] He wished to join Caesar's staff for the African campaign but gave way when his mother Atia protested over his poor health. [ 26 ] Caesar allowed Octavius to proceed next to his chariot during his triumph celebrating the campaign and awarded Octavius with military decorations as if he had been present. [ 27 ] In 45 BC Octavius traveled to Hispania to join Caesar's Spanish campaign against Pompey the Younger . [ 28 ] On 13 September 45 BC Caesar deposited a new will with the Vestal Virgins naming Octavius as his principal heir. [ 29 ] [ c ] ^ Southern 2014 , p. 24, Fig. 1.3. ^ Bringmann 2007 , p. 283; Galinsky 2012 , pp. xv, 2–3; Lewis 2023 , pp. 21–23; Southern 2014 , pp. 1, 5; Eck & Takács 2007 , p. 7; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 19, 23. ^ Lewis 2023 , pp. 21–23; Galinsky 2012 , pp. 2–3. ^ Lewis 2023 , p. 21; Southern 2014 , p. 5; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 32. ^ Lewis 2023 , p. 34; Shotter 2005 , pp. 1–2; Southern 2014 , pp. 1–3; Eck & Takács 2007 , p. 6; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 33. ^ Shotter 2005 , pp. 1–2; Luc 2024 , p. 133; Southern 2014 , pp. 5–6; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 32–33, 35–37, 40–44. ^ Galinsky 2012 , p. 5; Southern 2014 , p. 7; Eck & Takács 2007 , p. 6; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 44–45; Broughton 1952 , pp. 191 (proconsulship and proclamation as imperator ), 595 (index entry). ^ Shotter 2005 , pp. 1–2; Luc 2024 , p. 133; Southern 2014 , pp. 5–6; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 32–33, 35–37, 40–44; Broughton 1952 , pp. 110 (quaestorship), 162 (aedilate), 179 (praetorship), 191 (proconsulship and proclamation as imperator ), 595 (index entry). ^ Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 45; Eck & Takács 2007 , p. 6; Richardson 2012 , p. 5; Broughton 1952 , pp. 110 (quaestorship), 162 (aedilate), 179 (praetorship), 191 (proconsulship and proclamation as imperator ), 595 (index entry). Broughton cites the elogium for Octavius, ILS 47 , throughout. ^ Lewis 2023 , pp. 34–35; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 32; Suetonius, Augustus , 5–6. ^ Shotter 2005 , pp. 1–2; Galinsky 2012 , pp. 2, 4–5; Southern 2014 , p. 1. ^ Galinsky 2012 , pp. 2, 5; Southern 2014 , p. 5; Eck & Takács 2007 , p. 6. ^ Shotter 2005 , pp. 1–2; Lewis 2023 , p. 34; Rowell 1962 , p. 14; Southern 2014 , p. 7; Eck & Takács 2007 , pp. 6–7; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 20, 23. ^ Chisholm & Ferguson 1981 , p. 23; Galinsky 2012 , pp. xv, 5–6; Southern 2014 , pp. 7, 9; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 46–47. ^ Shotter 2005 , pp. 1–2; Luc 2024 , p. 133. ^ Galinsky 2012 , p. 6; Shotter 2005 , p. 2; Southern 2014 , pp. 3, 9; Eck & Takács 2007 , p. 7; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 48. ^ Galinsky 2012 , p. 8; Southern 2014 , p. 9; Eck & Takács 2007 , p. 7; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 48. ^ Shotter 2005 , p. 2; Galinsky 2012 , pp. 1, 14; Southern 2014 , pp. 5, 10; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 48, 65–66. ^ Galinsky 2012 , p. 10; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 48, 544 n. 4. ^ Galinsky 2012 , pp. 10–11. ^ Galinsky 2012 , pp. 7–8; Southern 2014 , pp. 8–9, 11–12, 91; Bringmann 2007 , pp. 229–231; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 20, 52–53. ^ Galinsky 2012 , pp. 8, 14; Southern 2014 , pp. 11–23, 91; Bringmann 2007 , pp. 229–231, 249, 251–257; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 52–53, 58–62. ^ Galinsky 2012 , p. 9, but giving 48 BC; Southern 2014 , pp. 23–24; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 67. ^ Rowell 1962 , p. 16; Galinsky 2012 , p. 14; Southern 2014 , p. 25; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 67–68. ^ Rowell 1962 , p. 16; Galinsky 2012 , p. 14. ^ Galinsky 2012 , p. 9; Southern 2014 , p. 27. ^ Galinsky 2012 , p. 11; Southern 2014 , p. 28; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 65, 73. ^ Galinsky 2012 , pp. 9, 14; Southern 2014 , pp. 30–31; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 69–70, 87, 114. ^ Bringmann 2007 , p. 283; Eck & Takács 2007 , p. 8; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 86, though he provides the date of 15 September 45 BC instead. ^ Morstein-Marx, Robert (2021). Julius Caesar and the Roman People . Cambridge University Press. p. 491 n. 17. doi : 10.1017/9781108943260 . ISBN   978-1-108-83784-2 . LCCN   2021024626 . S2CID   242729962 . Mommsen's restoration of Fasti Capit. Cons. sub anno 44 , making Octavius magister equitum designatus for 44, has now been disproved by the newly published fragments of the Privernum Fasti . ^ Zevi, Fausto; Cassola, Filippo (2016). "I Fasti di "Privernum" ". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik (in Italian). 197 : 287– 309. ISSN   0084-5388 . JSTOR   43910005 . ^ Southern 2014 , pp. 26–27, 36–37, 44. Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).

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Rise to power Main article: Rise of Augustus Further information: Crisis of the Roman Republic Heir to Caesar Further information: Rise of Augustus and Assassination of Julius Caesar The Death of Caesar by Vincenzo Camuccini , 1805, Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna , Rome In 44 BC, Octavius was at Apollonia , Illyria , when Julius Caesar was made Rome's first dictator perpetuo ('dictator in perpetuity') in February, [ 1 ] and then assassinated on the Ides of March (15 March). [ 2 ] Octavius consulted with Caesar's officers in Macedonia before sailing for Italy to ascertain his political fortunes. [ 3 ] Caesar had no living legitimate children under Roman law . [ 4 ] His will made Octavius his main heir with the condition that he assume the dead dictator 's name. [ 5 ] After landing near Brundisium in southern Italy, [ 6 ] Octavius received a copy of the will, which bequeathed him three-quarters of Caesar's estate. [ 7 ] [ a ] Against the advice of his stepfather Philippus, Octavius accepted Caesar's will on 8 May 44 BC. [ 10 ] He purported that Caesar adopted him as his son and assumed the name Gaius Julius Caesar. [ 11 ] His stepfather, Cicero , and other contemporaries referred to him as Octavianus . [ 12 ] Octavian could not rely on his limited funds to make a successful entry into politics. [ 13 ] After a warm welcome by Caesar's soldiers at Brundisium, [ 14 ] he demanded a portion of the funds allotted by Caesar for his eastern war against the Parthians . [ 13 ] This amounted to 700 million sesterces stored at Brundisium, the staging ground in Italy for military operations in the east. [ 15 ] [ b ] Octavian made another bold move when, without official permission, he appropriated the annual tribute from Rome's province of Asia to Italy. [ 17 ] He also began to recruit Caesar's veterans and men designated for the Parthian war. [ 18 ] On his march to Rome through Italy, Octavian's presence and newly acquired riches won over many, including Caesar's veterans stationed in Campania . [ 19 ] By June, he had gathered an army of 3,000 men, paying each a bonus of 500 denarii , [ 20 ] which was more than twice a soldier's annual pay. [ 21 ] Growing tensions Further information: Rise of Augustus and Philippicae Bust of Octavian, c.  30 BC . Capitoline Museums , Rome Arriving to Rome on 6 May 44 BC, [ 22 ] Octavian found consul Mark Antony , Caesar's former colleague, in an uneasy truce with Caesar's assassins. A general amnesty on 17 March pardoned the assassins in exchange for recognition of Caesar's legal acts. [ 23 ] Soon afterwards, Antony succeeded in driving most of them out of Rome with an inflammatory eulogy at Caesar's funeral, mounting public opinion against the assassins. [ 24 ] Mark Antony amassed political support, but had lost the support of many Romans and Caesarians when he opposed the motion to elevate Caesar to divine status. Octavian challenged him as the leader of the Caesarians. [ 25 ] To halt Octavian from dispersing 300 sesterces per capita to the urban plebs in accordance with Caesar's will, [ 26 ] Antony refused to give Octavian the money due him as Caesar's heir. [ 27 ] He also blocked the curiate assembly from hearing Octavian's attempts to legitimize his supposed adoption by Caesar, [ 28 ] to have Caesar formally deified and to reinstate Caesar's golden throne for public view at games staged in April and June. [ 29 ] During Caesar's victory games, Octavian distributed some of the funds in Caesar's will and combined this with his own money, enhancing his popularity while damaging Antony's. [ 30 ] During the summer of 44 BC, Octavian won the support of more veterans and also senators who perceived Antony as a threat to the state. [ 31 ] Antony had lictors drag Octavian away from a hearing over the reinstatement of private property seized by Caesar in 49 BC. Octavian then claimed Antony threatened his life as retribution for distributing money to the plebs in Caesar's will. Caesar's veterans convinced Antony to publicly reconcile with Octavian in the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus . [ 32 ] Thereafter, Antony's bellicose edicts against the assassins Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus alienated him from the moderate Caesarian senators, who feared a renewed civil war. [ 33 ] In September, Marcus Tullius Cicero , now a political ally of Octavian, began to give a series of speeches portraying Antony as a threat to the Republic . [ 34 ] First conflict with Antony Flavian -era bust traditionally identified as Mark Antony , Vatican Museums Main article: War of Mutina With opinion in Rome turning against him and his consulship concluding, Antony illegally passed a law that would assign him the province of Cisalpine Gaul in northern Italy. [ 35 ] Octavian meanwhile built up a private army in Italy by recruiting Caesarian veterans, [ 36 ] and in early November entered Rome with this private force to challenge Antony. [ 37 ] However, they vacated the city shortly afterwards, [ 38 ] due to some veterans choosing to quit once it became clear they were involved in a Caesarian squabble rather than a revenge campaign against Caesar's assassins. [ 39 ] Nevertheless, on 28 November, Octavian won over two of Antony's legions with the enticing offer of monetary gain. [ 40 ] Antony then left Rome for Cisalpine Gaul, [ 41 ] which was to be handed to him on 1 January 43 BC. [ 42 ] However, the province had earlier been assigned to the assassin Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus , who now refused to yield to Antony. [ 43 ] Antony besieged him at Mutina . [ 44 ] This provided an opportunity for Octavian, whose private army was at hand. [ 45 ] Bust of Marcus Tullius Cicero , 1st century AD, Capitoline Museums , Rome Cicero defended Octavian against Antony's taunts, [ 46 ] [ c ] and had him inducted as a senator on 1 January 43 BC. Octavian was given the power to vote alongside the former consuls, the privilege to stand for election at an earlier age than usual, [ 48 ] and imperium pro praetore which legitimized his command. Octavian accompanied the consuls to relieve the siege of Mutina. [ 49 ] He assumed the fasces on 7 January, [ 50 ] a date that he would later commemorate as the beginning of his public career. [ 51 ] Antony retreated to Transalpine Gaul after his forces were defeated at the battles of Forum Gallorum and Mutina in April. Both consuls were killed, however, leaving Octavian in sole command of their armies. [ 52 ] These victories earned him his first acclamation as imperator , a title reserved for victorious commanders. [ 53 ] Largely ignoring Octavian, the Senate heaped many rewards on Decimus Brutus and attempted to give him command of the consular legions. [ 54 ] In response, Octavian stayed in the Po Valley and refused to pursue Antony. [ 55 ] In July, an embassy of centurions sent by Octavian entered Rome; they demanded the now-vacant consulship for Octavian, [ 56 ] with Cicero as co-consul, [ 57 ] and the rescission of the decree declaring Antony a public enemy. [ 58 ] When this was refused, Octavian marched on Rome, [ 59 ] where he encountered no military opposition. On 19 August 43 BC, aged 19, he became consul alongside his relative Quintus Pedius . [ 60 ] Pedius passed legislation creating a special tribunal for Caesar's assassins and their alleged associates; Octavian presided over the trial and had them convicted and exiled in absentia. [ 61 ] [ d ] Octavian also induced the curiate assembly to have him adrogated into Caesar's family, legitimizing his claim of testamentary adoption. [ 63 ] Meanwhile, Antony formed an alliance with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus , then governor of Gallia Narbonensis . [ 64 ] The Senate branded Lepidus, a fellow Caesarian, as a public enemy for joining Antony, [ 65 ] but they reversed the pair's outlawing at Pedius's behest while Octavian marched north to fight Decimus Brutus and meet with Antony. [ 66 ] Second Triumvirate Main article: Second Triumvirate Further information: First Triumvirate In a meeting near Bononia in October 43   BC, Octavian joined with Antony and Lepidus to form the triumvirate , ostensibly for the stability of the Roman Republic , [ 67 ] and on 27 November the lex Titia legitimized their agreement for five years. [ 68 ] The triumvirate gave the men consular power, the right to appoint magistrates, and allowed their division among themselves of the provinces not under the control of the liberatores in the east. [ 69 ] Octavian had previously been engaged to Servilia , daughter of Servilius Isauricus , but instead became engaged to Claudia , stepdaughter of Antony, to solidify their political union. [ 70 ] Octavian also relinquished the consulship to Antony's ally Publius Ventidius . [ 71 ] Proscriptions Main article: Proscription of the Second Triumvirate Aureus bearing the portraits of Mark Antony (left) and Octavian (right), issued in 41   BC to celebrate the establishment of the Second Triumvirate . Both sides bear the inscription III vir rpc , meaning 'Three Men for the regulation of the Republic'. Caption: m ant imp aug [ e ] iiivir rpc m barbat [ f ] q p / caesar imp pont iiivir rpc . [ 73 ] [ 74 ] The triumvirs then set in motion proscriptions , targeting some 300 men as outlaws , divided roughly evenly between senators and equestrians. [ 75 ] Thousands more had their properties confiscated. [ g ] Contemporary Roman historians provide conflicting reports as to which triumvir was most responsible for the proscriptions and killing. [ 79 ] However, the sources agree that the proscriptions enabled all three to eliminate political enemies. [ 80 ] [ h ] The triumvirs initiated the proscriptions partly to raise money to pay the salaries of their troops for the upcoming conflict against Caesar's assassins Marcus Brutus and Gaius Cassius, but the main intention was the removal of wartime rivals. [ 88 ] The triumvirs seized the proscripts' property. [ 89 ] However much money was raised was insufficient, [ 90 ] so the triumvirs introduced a range of new taxes to fund their war. They reinstituted property taxes and created new imposts on slaves, before also demanding property assessments for taxes on rich women that were reduced after a public protest of women in Rome. [ 91 ] Battle of Philippi and division of territory Main articles: Liberators' civil war and Battle of Philippi A denarius coin of Augustus minted c.  18 BC . Obverse: CAESAR AVGVSTVS ; reverse: Caesar's comet with eight rays and an upward tail; DIVVS IVLIV[S] , " divine Julius ". On 1 January 42 BC, with Lepidus as consul, [ 92 ] the Senate posthumously recognized Julius Caesar as a divinity of the Roman state, divus Iulius . Octavian was able to further his cause by emphasizing that he was divi filius ('son of the divine'). [ 93 ] Antony and Octavian then led twenty-eight legions east against Brutus and Cassius, [ 94 ] whom they defeated after two battles at Philippi in Macedonia in October 42 BC. Brutus and Cassius both died by suicide. [ 95 ] Claiming responsibility for both victories, Antony branded Octavian a coward for handing over his direct military control to Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa . [ 96 ] Octavian was bedridden with illness during the first battle, [ 97 ] allegedly removing himself from command over the camp per his doctor's advice, [ 98 ] but captured Brutus's camp during the second battle. [ 99 ] Sculpted marble head of triumvir Octavian dated roughly to the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC, Archaeological Museum of Spoleto After Philippi, the triumvirs again divided the provinces. Lepidus was suspected of colluding with Sextus Pompey , [ 100 ] the renegade general whom the anti-Caesarian Senate had given command over all Mediterranean coastlines in 43 BC. [ 101 ] [ i ] Cisalpine Gaul was combined with Italia and given to Octavian along with the provinces of Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior that Lepidus had to forfeit. [ 102 ] Antony travelled east to Egypt where he allied himself with Cleopatra , a Roman client ruler, former lover of Julius Caesar, and mother of Caesar's son Caesarion . [ 103 ] In addition to the eastern provinces, Antony controlled Gallia Comata and took Gallia Narbonensis from Lepidus, [ 104 ] who was left with the province of Africa . [ 105 ] Octavian was left to settle tens of thousands of discharged veterans in Italy. [ 106 ] Those who fought for the assassins also required settlement for their pacification. [ 107 ] With no remaining public land, Octavian chose to confiscate land from citizens, instead of alienating the soldiers who could mount a real threat to the regime in Italy. [ 108 ] The settlements affected some eighteen cities, with entire populations fully or partially evicted. [ 109 ] Perusine War, marriage alliances, and Brundisium Main articles: Perusine War and Treaty of Brundisium Roman aureus bearing the portraits of Mark Antony (left) and Octavian (right), issued to celebrate their reconciliation in October 40 BC Cleopatra and Mark Antony on the obverse and reverse, respectively, of a silver tetradrachm struck at the mint of Antioch in 36 BC, with Greek legends These veteran settlements brought Octavian widespread dissatisfaction. The disaffected rallied to Mark Antony's brother Lucius Antonius , who was supported by a majority in the Senate. [ 110 ] Meanwhile, Octavian asked for a divorce from Claudia, Antony's stepdaughter. He returned Claudia to her mother, Fulvia , claiming that their marriage had never been consummated. [ 111 ] Fulvia and Lucius Antonius then raised an army in Italy to fight for Antony's rights against Octavian. [ 112 ] Lucius even briefly took Rome, forcing Lepidus and his two legions to flee the city. [ 113 ] However, the Roman army still depended on the triumvirs for their salaries. [ 114 ] Lucius and his allies ended up in a defensive siege at Perusia , where Octavian forced their surrender in February 40 BC. [ 115 ] Octavian spared Lucius, while Fulvia fled to Sicyon in Greece [ 116 ] and died shortly afterwards. [ 117 ] On 15 March, the anniversary of Julius Caesar's assassination, Octavian had 300 Roman senators and equestrians executed for allying with Lucius. [ 118 ] [ j ] Perusia was also sacked, [ 120 ] though it is unclear who started the fires. [ 119 ] These reprisals sullied Octavian's reputation. [ 121 ] A Roman bust of Livia , Augustus's third wife, Musée Saint-Raymond , France Sextus Pompey affirmed his control of Sicily as part of an agreement with the triumvirate in 40 BC, [ 122 ] and gained control of Sardinia and Corsica in 39. [ 123 ] Both Antony and Octavian sought an alliance with him. [ 124 ] Octavian established a temporary alliance in 40 BC when he married Scribonia , an aunt of Sextus's wife. [ 125 ] A year later, Scribonia gave birth to Octavian's only surviving child, Julia , on the same day that he divorced her to marry Livia Drusilla . [ 126 ] When Livia began her affair with Octavian, she was already married to Tiberius Claudius Nero , had a son Tiberius with Nero, and was pregnant with their second child. She gave birth to her second son, Drusus , several months after her divorce from Nero and marriage to Octavian. [ 127 ] Livia later had another child with Octavian, who was born prematurely and did not survive. [ 128 ] While in Egypt, Antony had engaged in an affair with Cleopatra and had fathered three children with her. [ 129 ] [ k ] Antony's Gallic provinces fell into Octavian's hands after the death of Antony's legate Quintus Calenus in 40 BC. [ 132 ] Aware of his deteriorating relationship with Octavian, Antony left Cleopatra; he sailed to Italy in 40 BC with a large force to oppose Octavian, laying siege to Brundisium, but the men's revolting armies forced them to reconcile. [ 133 ] In late 40, the triumvirs divided the empire between Antony in the east, Octavian in the west, and Lepidus in Africa. [ 134 ] [ l ] Now in a stronger position due to the Parthian threat in Antony's provinces , [ 136 ] Octavian gave his sister, Octavia Minor , in marriage to Antony. [ 137 ] War with Sextus Pompey and exile of Lepidus Main article: Bellum Siculum Further information: Pact of Misenum and Octavian's military campaigns in Illyricum A denarius of Sextus Pompey , minted for his victory over Octavian's fleet. Obverse: the place where he defeated Octavian, Pharus of Messina decorated with a statue of Neptune; before that galley adorned with aquila, sceptre & trident; MAG. PIVS IMP. ITER . Reverse, the monster Scylla , her torso of dogs and fish tails, wielding a rudder as a club. Caption: PRAEF[ECTUS] CLAS[SIS] ET ORAE MARIT[IMAE] EX S. C. Before the battles of Philippi, Octavian had sent Salvidienus Rufus to remove Sextus Pompey from Sicily, but after Rufus's defeat, the triumvirs recognized Sextus's Mediterranean command at Brundisium in 40 BC. [ 138 ] When Sextus resumed his blockade, a starving angry mob in Rome blamed Octavian and Antony and attacked them in early 39 BC; Antony's forces rescued Octavian and dispersed the mob. [ 139 ] Another temporary peace agreement was reached in 39 BC at Misenum . Sextus lifted the blockade on Italy once Octavian granted him Sardinia , Corsica , Sicily , and the Peloponnese and ensured him a future position in the consulship. [ 140 ] [ m ] The agreement between the triumvirate and Sextus began to crumble when Octavian divorced Scribonia and married Livia in 38 BC. [ 146 ] After Antony refused to relinquish the Peloponnese, Sextus reimposed his blockade, starting food riots at Rome. [ 147 ] Sextus's naval commander Menas defected, handing over Corsica and Sardinia. [ 148 ] However, after Octavian's naval forces were defeated at Cumae , [ 149 ] Octavian lacked the resources to confront Sextus alone, so he sought Antony's help, extending their terms for another five-year period beginning in 37 BC. [ 150 ] In supporting Octavian, Antony expected to gain support for his own campaign against the Parthians. [ 151 ] At Tarentum in mid-37 BC, [ 152 ] Antony provided 120 ships for Octavian to use against Sextus, [ 153 ] while Octavian was to send 20,000 legionaries to Antony for use against Parthia . Two years later Octavian sent only a tenth of those promised, which Antony viewed as a provocation. [ 154 ] Meanwhile, Octavian tasked Agrippa with creating the artificial harbor Portus Julius for the training and shipbuilding of Octavian's naval fleet . [ 155 ] Denarius of 42 BC depicting Marcus Aemilius Lepidus ; the inscription reads III v(ir) r(ei) p(ublicae) c(onstituendae) Lepidus pont(ifex) max(imus) (' Triumvir for the regulation of the republic , Lepidus, Pontifex maximus '). Octavian and Lepidus launched a joint operation against Sextus in Sicily in 36 BC. [ 156 ] Octavian was shipwrecked in Sicily , [ 157 ] but Agrippa defeated Sextus at Mylae in August [ 158 ] before almost destroying Sextus's forces at Naulochus in September. [ 159 ] Sextus fled to the east, but Antony had him executed at Miletus in 35 BC. [ 160 ] As Lepidus and Octavian accepted the surrender of Sextus's troops, Lepidus attempted to claim Sicily for himself. However, Lepidus's troops deserted him after Octavian bribed them. [ 161 ] Octavian forced Lepidus into retirement but allowed him to remain pontifex maximus ('supreme pontiff'). [ 162 ] Octavian protected Roman citizens' rights to property, settled his discharged soldiers outside Italy, [ 163 ] and returned 30,000 slaves to their former Roman owners after they had fled to join Sextus's army and navy. [ 164 ] To ensure his family's safety once he returned to Rome, he had the Senate grant him, his wife, and his sister tribunician immunity, or sacrosanctitas . [ 165 ] After defeating Sextus, Octavian campaigned in Illyricum (in what is now Croatia). [ 166 ] During the first campaign in 35 BC he destroyed Segesta (modern Siscia ) and was wounded by a collapsing siege ramp when he besieged Metulum (along the Kolpa River ). [ 167 ] The Senate lauded these efforts, though Octavian postponed a triumph for his victories, [ 168 ] and only later acknowledged the contributions of commanders Agrippa and Statilius Taurus . [ 169 ] [ n ] War with Antony and Cleopatra Main article: War of Actium Further information: Reign of Cleopatra Antony and Cleopatra , by Lawrence Alma-Tadema , painted 1885 In 36 BC, Octavian declared the civil wars at an end and suggested that he and Antony resign as triumvirs; Antony refused. [ 172 ] Antony's Parthian campaign in 36 BC turned into a debacle and ruined his reputation. [ 173 ] The mere 2,000 legionaries sent by Octavian to Antony, traveling with his wife Octavia, were hardly enough to replenish his lost forces. [ 174 ] On the other hand, Cleopatra, with her enormous wealth, could restore his army to full strength. [ 175 ] Her and Antony's third child, Ptolemy Philadelphus , was born in 36 BC, [ 176 ] so in 35 BC Antony decided to send Octavia back to Rome. [ 177 ] Octavian attacked Antony for rejecting his Roman spouse for a foreign queen. [ 178 ] He also sought to convince the Senate that Antony had ambitions to diminish the preeminence of Rome. [ 179 ] When Octavian assumed the consulship of 33 BC, he opened the Senate with a vehement attack on Antony's grants of titles and territories to his relatives and Cleopatra, later known as the Donations of Alexandria . [ 180 ] In early 32 BC, amid an intense war of propaganda with Octavian, Antony divorced Octavia. [ 181 ] The new consuls Gaius Sosius and Gnaeus Ahenobarbus supported Antony and threatened to revoke Octavian's triumviral authority. [ 182 ] This prompted Octavian to enter the Senate house and denounce Antony and Sosius; both consuls and many senators then fled Rome for Antony. [ 183 ] However, two of Antony's key supporters, Munatius Plancus and Marcus Titius , defected to Octavian in autumn. [ 184 ] They offered him vital information about Antony's will, which Antony published after marching on the Temple of Vesta . The will would have given away Roman-conquered territories as kingdoms for his sons to rule and designated Alexandria as the site of a tomb for him and Cleopatra. [ 185 ] The Battle of Actium , by Laureys a Castro , painted 1672 National Maritime Museum , London In late 32 BC, the Senate revoked Antony's upcoming consulship and declared war on Cleopatra . [ 186 ] [ o ] Octavian used emergency powers to have men of military age throughout the Republic swear an oath of loyalty to him. [ 189 ] In early 31 BC, as Antony and Cleopatra moved to Greece, Octavian's forces under Agrippa transited the Adriatic Sea, [ 190 ] and cut off their main force from their supply routes in the Ionian Sea . [ 191 ] Octavian then landed in Epirus , [ 192 ] and proceeded to march south. [ 193 ] Trapped on land and sea, Antony's men started to desert as Octavian prepared for battle. [ 194 ] This mid-1st-century BC Roman wall painting in the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus, Pompeii , is most likely a depiction of Cleopatra VII of Ptolemaic Egypt as Venus Genetrix , with her son Caesarion as Cupid , similar in appearance to the now-lost statue of Cleopatra erected by Julius Caesar in the Temple of Venus Genetrix (within the Forum of Caesar ). Its owner walled off the room with this painting, most likely in immediate reaction to the execution of Caesarion on orders of Augustus in 30 BC, when artistic depictions of Caesarion would have been considered a sensitive issue for the ruling regime. [ 195 ] Antony's fleet sailed through the bay of Actium along the Ambracian Gulf of western Greece to break the blockade . [ 196 ] There, they fought the Battle of Actium on 2 September 31 BC. [ 197 ] Cleopatra and her portion of the fleet withdrew early in the battle and Antony later joined them; [ 198 ] Cleopatra's fleet spared Antony's remaining forces in a last-ditch effort. [ 199 ] Antony's nearby forces on land surrendered to Octavian after attempting a retreat through Macedonia. [ 200 ] [ p ] Various client kings now defected to Octavian. [ 202 ] [ q ] Octavian would later establish a new city— Nicopolis ('victory city')—near the site of the battle at Actium. [ 204 ] On 1 August 30 BC, Octavian defeated Antony at Alexandria ; Antony then died by suicide. [ 205 ] After meeting with Octavian and refusing to be paraded in a triumph at Rome, [ 206 ] Cleopatra took her own life with poison. [ 207 ] Well aware of the dangers presented by another potential heir to Caesar, Octavian ordered the death of Cleopatra's son Caesarion. [ 208 ] He also had Antony's son Marcus Antonius Antyllus killed, [ 209 ] but spared their other children [ 210 ] and pardoned many of his opponents. Octavian had previously shown little mercy to surrendered enemies. [ 211 ] He also ensured that Cleopatra was buried with Antony in their tomb. [ 212 ] He appointed Cleopatra's daughter Cleopatra Selene II and her husband, Juba II of Numidia , as the new co-rulers of Mauretania following their marriage in 25 BC. [ 213 ] ^ Southern 2014 , pp. 49, 182; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 70, 74, 83–84, also noting study and military training. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 9; Galinsky 2012 , pp. xv, 11, 14–15, 80; Southern 2014 , pp. 36–37, 42–43; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 78–79, 83–84. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 9; Southern 2014 , pp. 42–43; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 84–85; Rawson 1994 , p. 471. ^ Roller 2010 , p. 74; Burstein 2004 , pp. xxi, 21. ^ Tatum 2024 , p. 146, noting Caesar's condicio nominis ferendi ("action of taking a name") "must not be confused with actual adoption"; Lindsay 2009 , p. 84–85, noting full adoption by testament was "impossible", 182ff.; Southern 2014 , p. 37, asserting that in Caesar's will Octavius was entitled "if he so wished, to style himself Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus".; Syme 1988 , p. 159. ^ Southern 2014 , pp. 42–43; Galinsky 2012 , p. 15; Eck & Takács 2007 , pp. 9–10; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 85. ^ Lindsay 2009 , pp. 184–5, 186 n. 3 and Southern 2014 , pp. 33–34, citing among others: Appian, Bella Civilia , 2.143; Cicero, Ad Atticum , 14.10.3; Dio , 44.35.2.3; Nicolaus Damascenus , 17.48. See also Tatum 2024 , p. 130, Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 9, Rowell 1962 , p. 14, Galinsky 2012 , pp. 9–10, 15, and Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 86. ^ Richardson 2012 , p. 7. ^ Lindsay 2009 , pp. 184–5. ^ Galinsky 2012 , pp. xv, 9–10, 15; Southern 2014 , p. 43; Bringmann 2007 , p. 283, without date; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 88, without date; Rawson 1994 , p. 471, mentioning May. ^ Tatum 2024 , p. 146, calling the claim of adoption "a transparent falsehood for anyone conversant with Roman law"; Lindsay 2009 , p. 183, noting consensus that the adoption was legally dubious; Levick 2009 , p. 209; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 87, summarizes the scholarly debate, notes technicality that "such full adoption could only occur in the father's lifetime and could not be posthumous"; Southern 2014 , p. 37, insisting on the "adoption" and that his inherited name Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus "followed the customary Roman fashion, indicating that Octavius had been adopted into the family of the Julii Caesares from his original family of the Octavii". ^ Lindsay 2009 , p. 89, citing among others Cicero, Ad Atticum , 14.12, 15.12, 16.8–9, 16.12, 16.14; Southern 2014 , p. 45, quoting Cicero, which also points out the example of stepfather Philippus; Galinsky 2012 , p. 16, noting only the example of Cicero; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 88–89, noting how "enemies called him Octavianus to stress that his real family was obscure" while also noting on p. 110 how Cicero started referring to him as Caesar after he recruited two legions that were previously loyal to Antony. ^ a b Eck & Takács 2003 , pp. 9–10. ^ Rowell 1962 , p. 19; Eck & Takács 2007 , pp. 9–10; Southern 2014 , p. 55. ^ Rowell 1962 , p. 18. ^ Rowell 1962 , p. 19. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 10; Eder 2005 , p. 18. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 9. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 10; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 101–103. ^ Chisholm & Ferguson 1981 , pp. 24, 27; Rowell 1962 , p. 20; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 101 for the 500 denarii, p. 103 for the raising of 3, 000 veterans. ^ Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 101. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 10; Galinsky 2012 , p. 20. ^ Bringmann 2007 , pp. 281–282; Galinsky 2012 , pp. 21–22; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 85–86; Southern 2014 , pp. 55–56. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 10; Bringmann 2007 , pp. 281–283, 285; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 86; Southern 2014 , pp. 56–57. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 11. ^ Bringmann 2007 , pp. 283, 285; Rawson 1994 , pp. 471–472. ^ Rawson 1994 , p. 472, citing Appian, Bella Civilia , 3.94. ^ Lindsay 2009 , p. 188. "He had been pushing Antony for a lex curiata in order... to legalise his position as Caesar's son"; Southern 2014 , pp. 62–63; Galinsky 2012 , p. 22; Bringmann 2007 , p. 285; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 98. ^ Galinsky 2012 , pp. 21–24; Southern 2014 , pp. 57–59, 61–62; Bringmann 2007 , pp. 285–287; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 98–100. ^ Galinsky 2012 , p. 25; Rawson 1994 , pp. 471–472. ^ Rawson 1994 , pp. 474–476; Galinsky 2012 , pp. 25–26; Bringmann 2007 , p. 287. ^ Galinsky 2012 , p. 25. ^ Rawson 1994 , pp. 474–476; Bringmann 2007 , pp. 286–287. ^ Chisholm & Ferguson 1981 , p. 26; Rowell 1962 , p. 30; Galinsky 2012 , pp. 21, 26–27; Tatum 2024 , pp. 159–60; Southern 2014 , pp. 45–55, 58–59, 67–70, 89–90; Bringmann 2007 , p. 287; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 102, 110; Rawson 1994 , pp. 477, 479–480. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , pp. 11–12; Rowell 1962 , p. 21; Galinsky 2012 , p. 28; Southern 2014 , p. 65; Bringmann 2007 , pp. 285–286; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 101, 111; Rawson 1994 , p. 474, noting its triple illegality. ^ Syme 1939 , pp. 123–126; Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 12; Rowell 1962 , p. 23; Southern 2014 , pp. 66–67; Bringmann 2007 , p. 287; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 101–103. ^ Galinsky 2012 , pp. 27–28; Southern 2014 , p. 68; Bringmann 2007 , p. 287; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 103–105. ^ Bringmann 2007 , p. 287; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 104–105. ^ Galinsky 2012 , pp. 27–28; Southern 2014 , p. 68; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 104–105. ^ Syme 1939 , pp. 123–126; Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 12; Rowell 1962 , p. 23; Galinsky 2012 , p. 28; Southern 2014 , p. 69; Bringmann 2007 , p. 287; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 105–109. ^ Rowell 1962 , p. 23; Bringmann 2007 , p. 287; Galinsky 2012 , p. 28; Southern 2014 , pp. 66–69; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 109–111, 114–115. ^ Rowell 1962 , p. 23; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 111–112, 114–115. ^ Galinsky 2012 , pp. 28–29; Southern 2014 , pp. 66–67, 71; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 114–115. ^ Rowell 1962 , p. 24; Southern 2014 , p. 69; Bringmann 2007 , pp. 290–291; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 115; Golden 2013 , p. 195; Rawson 1994 , p. 479. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 12; Galinsky 2012 , pp. 28–29; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 113–116; Rawson 1994 , p. 477, 479; Golden 2013 , p. 195. ^ Chisholm & Ferguson 1981 , p. 29; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 112. ^ Chisholm & Ferguson 1981 , p. 29. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 13; Rowell 1962 , p. 23; Galinsky 2012 , p. 29; Southern 2014 , pp. 69–70; Bringmann 2007 , p. 289; Rawson 1994 , p. 480. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 13; Syme 1939 , p. 167; Galinsky 2012 , pp. 29–30; Southern 2014 , pp. 69–70; Bringmann 2007 , pp. 289–291; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 114–116. ^ Fishwick 2004 , p. 250. ^ Rowell 1962 , p. 24; Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 13; Gruen 2005 , p. 160; Southern 2014 , p. 71. ^ Syme 1939 , pp. 173–174; Scullard 1982 , p. 157; Galinsky 2012 , p. 30; Southern 2014 , pp. 71–72; Bringmann 2007 , p. 291; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 116–120; Golden 2013 , p. 199. ^ Fishwick 2004 , p. 250; Southern 2014 , p. 72; Rawson 1994 , p. 483. ^ Rowell 1962 , pp. 26–27; Southern 2014 , p. 72; Bringmann 2007 , p. 291; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 121; Golden 2013 , pp. 201–203. ^ Rowell 1962 , p. 27; Golden 2013 , pp. 201–203. ^ Chisholm & Ferguson 1981 , pp. 32–33; Southern 2014 , p. 74; Bringmann 2007 , p. 292; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 122–123. ^ Galinsky 2012 , p. 30; Southern 2014 , p. 74; Bringmann 2007 , p. 292; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 122–123. ^ Rowell 1962 , p. 27. ^ Rowell 1962 , p. 27; Southern 2014 , p. 74; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 123–124; Golden 2013 , p. 203. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 15; Rowell 1962 , p. 28; Galinsky 2012 , pp. 30–31; Southern 2014 , pp. 83–86; Bringmann 2007 , p. 292; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 124; Golden 2013 , p. 204; Rawson 1994 , p. 485. ^ Welch 2014 , pp. 138–145, preferring the Greek narratives ( Appian, Bella Civilia , 3.95.392–3, Dio , 46.48.2–4) to the streamlined versions in Latin (especially Augustus, RGDA , 2); Southern 2014 , p. 88; Bringmann 2007 , pp. 292–293; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 124–125; Rawson 1994 , p. 486. ^ Welch 2014 , pp. 138–39 ( RGDA ), 142–43; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 125. ^ Lindsay 2009 , pp. xi, 84; Southern 2014 , pp. 87–88; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 124; Rawson 1994 , p. 486. ^ Syme 1939 , pp. 176–186; Southern 2014 , pp. 79–80; Bringmann 2007 , p. 292; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 121; Golden 2013 , p. 201. ^ Southern 2014 , pp. 79–80; Bringmann 2007 , p. 292; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 121, 125. ^ Southern 2014 , pp. 89–90; Bringmann 2007 , p. 292; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 125. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 16; Galinsky 2012 , p. 42; Burstein 2004 , pp. xxi, 21–22; Bringmann 2007 , p. 295; Southern 2014 , pp. 90–92; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 126–127. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 16; Vervaet 2020 , p. 24; Southern 2014 , p. 97, 99; Bringmann 2007 , p. 296; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 127, 129, 502; Rawson 1994 , p. 486. ^ Scullard 1982 , p. 163; Galinsky 2012 , p. 42; Burstein 2004 , pp. xxi, 21–22; Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 15; Southern 2014 , pp. 91–92, 99; Bringmann 2007 , pp. 295–296. ^ Galinsky 2012 , pp. 31, 40; Bringmann 2007 , pp. 295–296; Southern 2014 , pp. 93–94; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 134–135; Rawson 1994 , p. 486. ^ Southern 2014 , pp. 93, 100; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 126–127. ^ a b Sear, David R. "Common Legend Abbreviations On Roman Coins" . Archived from the original on 30 July 2007 . Retrieved 24 August 2007 . ^ Sear 2004 , p. 89. ^ Einaudi 2014 . ^ Hinard 1985 , p. 269. «  Au total... on trouve un chiffre d'environ 300 proscrits se répartissant également entre sénateurs et chevaliers.  »; Southern 2014 , pp. 97–98, pointing out the conflicting numbers reported by Appian and Livy, suggesting Appian's figure of 300 senators may have included those who fled and Livy's figure of 130 senators may have included only those who were killed ^ Southern 2014 , pp. 97–98. ^ Hinard 1985 , pp. 267–268. «  Mais il n'est pas vraisemblable, compte tenu des chiffres que nous avons cru pouvoir établir pour la première proscription, que la seconde ait pu compter tant de victimes.  » ^ Hinard 1985 , pp. 275–292. ^ Southern 2014 , pp. 94–95; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 131. ^ Scott 1933 , pp. 19–20. ^ a b Scott 1933 , p. 19. ^ Scott 1933 , p. 19; Southern 2014 , p. 94. ^ Scott 1933 , p. 20. ^ Scott 1933 , pp. 19–20; Southern 2014 , p. 95; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 131. ^ Galinsky 2012 , pp. 36–37; Bringmann 2007 , p. 293; Southern 2014 , pp. 94–95, 99; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 130–131; Rawson 1994 , p. 487. ^ Scott 1933 , p. 19; Southern 2014 , p. 98; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 129–130. ^ Southern 2014 , pp. 73, 94–95. ^ Galinsky 2012 , pp. 36, 42; Scullard 1982 , p. 164; Southern 2014 , pp. 97, 100–101. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 16; Southern 2014 , pp. 96–97; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 128–133. ^ Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 133; Richardson 2012 , p. 37. ^ Richardson 2012 , p. 37. After protests led by Hortensia , the taxes on women were scaled back considerably. Southern 2014 , p. 101 states that the list of roughly 1,400 women listed for making contributions to the state was reduced to about 400 women after protests led by Hortensia, which were supported by Octavian's sister and Mark Antony's mother . See also Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 133–134 for a similar description about the proposed tax on 1,400 wealthy women, Hortensia's protest, and the reduction of taxes levied from only 400 wealthy women. Tributum and abeyance since 167 BC: Burton 2012 . ^ Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 134. ^ Syme 1939 , p. 202; Southern 2014 , pp. 101–102; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 134. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 17; Southern 2014 , pp. 80–82, 104; Bringmann 2007 , pp. 290, 297; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 115–116, 135–136. ^ Roller 2010 , p. 75; Galinsky 2012 , p. 42; Burstein 2004 , pp. xxi, 22–23; Southern 2014 , pp. 104–106; Bringmann 2007 , p. 297; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 137–142. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , pp. 17–18. ^ Southern 2014 , pp. 104, 106; Galinsky 2012 , p. 32; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 136–137. ^ Galinsky 2012 , p. 32; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 141. ^ Southern 2014 , p. 106. ^ Bringmann 2007 , p. 297; Southern 2014 , p. 108; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 143–144. ^ a b Southern 2014 , pp. 82–83, Fig. 3.2; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 156–157. ^ Southern 2014 , pp. 107–108; Bringmann 2007 , pp. 296–298; Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 18; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 127, 143–144, 153. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 18; Roller 2010 , pp. 4–5, 69–71, 74, 76–83; Burstein 2004 , pp. xxi–xxii, 20–21, 23–25; Southern 2014 , pp. 63–64; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 74–75, 143, 154, 180–181. ^ Southern 2014 , p. 108; Bringmann 2007 , pp. 296–297; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 127, 143–144, 153. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 18; Roller 2010 , p. 76; Southern 2014 , p. 108; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 143–144. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 18; Galinsky 2012 , pp. 42–43; Southern 2014 , p. 108; Bringmann 2007 , p. 298; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 144. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 18; Southern 2014 , p. 108. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , pp. 18–19; Southern 2014 , pp. 108–109; Bringmann 2007 , p. 298; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 144. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 19; Galinsky 2012 , pp. 42–43; Bringmann 2007 , p. 298; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 144. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 19; Galinsky 2012 , p. 43; Southern 2014 , pp. 109–111; Bringmann 2007 , p. 298; Goldsworthy 2014 . ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 19; Galinsky 2012 , p. 40; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 134–135, 152–153. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 19; Galinsky 2012 , pp. 36, 40, 43; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 145. ^ Southern 2014 , pp. 111–112; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 145. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 19. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 19; Galinsky 2012 , pp. 36, 40, 43; Southern 2014 , pp. 112–113; Bringmann 2007 , p. 298; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 145–146. ^ Rowell 1962 , p. 32; Southern 2014 , pp. 112–113, 129; Bringmann 2007 , p. 298; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 146–147. ^ Southern 2014 , p. 130; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 155. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 20; Galinsky 2012 , p. 36; Southern 2014 , p. 113; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 146. ^ a b Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 146. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 20; Rowell 1962 , p. 32; Southern 2014 , p. 113. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 20. ^ Southern 2014 , pp. 82–83, 131, 133, Fig. 3.2. ^ Scullard 1982 , p. 162; Southern 2014 , pp. 133; Bringmann 2007 , p. 299. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 20; Southern 2014 , p. 130; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 153–154, 156. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 20; Galinsky 2012 , pp. 40–41; Southern 2014 , p. 123; Bringmann 2007 , p. 299; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 156. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 20; Galinsky 2012 , p. 41; Southern 2014 , pp. 123, 137–138; Bringmann 2007 , p. 299, though he only mentions Octavian's divorce of Scribonia and marriage to Livia Drusilla , and not the birth of Julia the Elder . ^ Galinsky 2012 , pp. 40–41; Southern 2014 , pp. 123, 137–138; Hurley 2004 ; Bringmann 2007 , p. 299, who mentions Tiberius Claudius Nero divorcing Livia Drusilla so she could marry Octavian, but does not mention Livia was already pregnant while courting Octavian. ^ Freisenbruch 2017 , p. 121. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 21; Galinsky 2012 , p. 46; Roller 2010 , pp. 83–84; Burstein 2004 , p. xxii, 25; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 154, 181. ^ Galinsky 2012 , p. 46; Roller 2010 , pp. 83–84; Burstein 2004 , p. xxii, 25; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 154, 181. ^ Roller 2010 , p. 96; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 181–182; Burstein 2004 , p. xxii, 25–26. ^ Bringmann 2007 , p. 298; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 153. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 21; Eder 2005 , p. 19; Galinsky 2012 , p. 44; Southern 2014 , pp. 130–131; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 153–156. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 21; Galinsky 2012 , p. 44; Southern 2014 , pp. 130–131; Bringmann 2007 , p. 299; Burstein 2004 , p. 25; Goldsworthy 2014 . ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 21. ^ Bringmann 2007 , p. 299; Burstein 2004 , pp. 24–25; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 154. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 21; Galinsky 2012 , p. 44; Southern 2014 , pp. 4, 132; Bringmann 2007 , p. 299; Burstein 2004 , p. 25; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 155–156, 181. ^ Southern 2014 , pp. 82 (Fig. 3.2), 104, 133. ^ Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 158–159. ^ Eder 2005 , p. 19; Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 22; Galinsky 2012 , p. 44; Southern 2014 , pp. 133–134, Figure 4.3; Bringmann 2007 , p. 299; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 159. ^ Southern 2014 , p. 134. ^ Bringmann 2007 , p. 299. ^ Bringmann 2007 , p. 299; Southern 2014 , p. 134. ^ Welch 2002 , p. 51. ^ Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 159. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 23. ^ Southern 2014 , pp. 138–139. ^ Scullard 1982 , p. 163; Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 24; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 165. ^ Southern 2014 , p. 139. ^ Scullard 1982 , p. 163; Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 24; Southern 2014 , pp. 139–140; Bringmann 2007 , pp. 299–300; Roller 2010 , pp. 89–90; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 166. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 24; Roller 2010 , pp. 89–90; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 166. ^ Southern 2014 , pp. 139–140; Bringmann 2007 , pp. 299–300; Roller 2010 , pp. 89–90; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 166. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 25; Galinsky 2012 , p. 46; Southern 2014 , pp. 139; Bringmann 2007 , pp. 299–300; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 166. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 25; Galinsky 2012 , p. 46; Southern 2014 , pp. 139, 154; Bringmann 2007 , pp. 299–300; Burstein 2004 , pp. 27–28; Roller 2010 , pp. 97–98. ^ Southern 2014 , p. 141; Galinsky 2012 , p. 45; Bringmann 2007 , p. 299; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 166–167. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , pp. 25–26; Galinsky 2012 , pp. 38, 44–45; Southern 2014 , p. 141; Bringmann 2007 , p. 300; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 166–168. ^ Southern 2014 , pp. 141–142; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 167–169. ^ Southern 2014 , pp. 141–142; Bringmann 2007 , p. 300; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 168. ^ Galinsky 2012 , pp. 44–45; Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 26; Southern 2014 , pp. 142, 145–146; Bringmann 2007 , p. 300; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 168. ^ Galinsky 2012 , p. 47; Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 26; Southern 2014 , p. 142; Bringmann 2007 , p. 300; Roller 2010 , p. 98; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 172. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 26; Southern 2014 , p. 142–143; Bringmann 2007 , p. 300; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 170–171; Galinsky 2012 , p. 38. ^ Scullard 1982 , p. 164; Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 26; Galinsky 2012 , p. 38; Southern 2014 , pp. 143, 146; Bringmann 2007 , p. 300; Roller 2010 , p. 98; Burstein 2004 , p. 27; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 171–172. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , pp. 26–27; Southern 2014 , p. 147; Bringmann 2007 , p. 300. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , pp. 26–27. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , pp. 27–28; Southern 2014 , pp. 143–145. ^ Southern 2014 , pp. 148–150; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 174–178. ^ Southern 2014 , p. 149; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 175–177. ^ Southern 2014 , pp. 149–150, 154; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 177–178. ^ Southern 2014 , pp. 149–150, 154. ^ Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 178–179. ^ Southern 2014 , p. 150. ^ Eder 2005 , p. 20; Bringmann 2007 , p. 300. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 29; Roller 2010 , pp. 97–98; Burstein 2004 , pp. 27–28; Southern 2014 , pp. 151, 153–154; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 172–173. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 29; Roller 2010 , pp. 97–98; Burstein 2004 , pp. 27–28; Southern 2014 , pp. 151, 153–154. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , pp. 29–30; Galinsky 2012 , pp. 41, 46; Southern 2014 , p. 151; Roller 2010 , p. 97; Burstein 2004 , pp. 27–28. ^ Roller 2010 , p. 96; Burstein 2004 , pp. xxii, 25–26; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 181–182. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , pp. 29–30; Galinsky 2012 , pp. 41, 46; Southern 2014 , p. 154; Roller 2010 , pp. 5, 97–98; Burstein 2004 , pp. 27–28; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 182. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 30; Roller 2010 , pp. 5, 98; Southern 2014 , pp. 153–154; Bringmann 2007 , p. 301; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 182. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 30; Bringmann 2007 , p. 302; Southern 2014 , pp. 125–126, 152–154; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 183–185. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 31; Bringmann 2007 , p. 302; Galinsky 2012 , pp. 46–47. ^ Galinsky 2012 , pp. 47–48; Roller 2010 , p. 135; Bringmann 2007 , p. 303; Burstein 2004 , p. xxii, 29; Southern 2014 , pp. 152–154. ^ Galinsky 2012 , pp. 48–50; Southern 2014 , pp. 155, 157–158; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 186. ^ Galinsky 2012 , pp. 48–50; Roller 2010 , p. 134; Bringmann 2007 , p. 303; Burstein 2004 , pp. 29–30; Southern 2014 , p. 158; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 186. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , pp. 32–34; Roller 2010 , p. 135; Bringmann 2007 , p. 303; Southern 2014 , p. 159; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 186–187. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , pp. 34–35; Eder 2005 , pp. 21–22; Roller 2010 , pp. 135–136; Galinsky 2012 , p. 50; Burstein 2004 , p. 29; Southern 2014 , p. 159; Goldsworthy 2014 , pp. 186–187. ^ Eck & Takács 2003 , p. 35; Eder 2005 , p. 22; Roller 2010 , pp. 5, 136–137; Galinsky 2012 , p. 50; Burstein 2004 , pp. xxii, 30; Southern 2014 , pp. 125–126, 160; Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 188; Jones 2006 , p. 147. ^ Goldsworthy 2014 , p. 188; Roller 2010 , pp. 136–137; Southern 2014 , pp. 125–126; Jones 2006 , pp. 147. ^ Roller 2010 , pp. 136–137. ^ Galinsky 2012 , pp. 51–52; 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