Charlemagne

Early life and rise to power Political background and ancestry Francia in 714 By the 6th century, the western Germanic tribe of the Franks had been Christianised ; this was largely instigated by the conversion of King Clovis I to Catholicism. [ 1 ] The Franks established a kingdom in Gaul following the Fall of the Western Roman Empire . [ 2 ] This kingdom, Francia , grew to encompass nearly all of present-day France and Switzerland, along with parts of modern Germany and the Low Countries under the rule of the Merovingian dynasty . [ 3 ] Francia was often divided under different Merovingian kings, due to the partible inheritance practised by the Franks. [ 4 ] The late 7th century saw a period of war and instability following the murder of King Childeric II , which led to factional struggles among the Frankish aristocrats. [ 5 ] Pepin of Herstal , mayor of the palace of Austrasia , ended the strife between various kings and their mayors with his 687 victory at the Battle of Tertry . [ 6 ] Pepin was the grandson of two important figures of Austrasia: Arnulf of Metz and Pepin of Landen . [ 7 ] The mayors of the palace had gained influence as the Merovingian kings' power waned following divisions of the kingdom and several succession crises. [ 8 ] Pepin was eventually succeeded by his son Charles, later known as Charles Martel . [ 9 ] Charles did not support a Merovingian successor upon the death of King Theuderic IV in 737, leaving the throne vacant. [ 10 ] He made plans to divide the kingdom between his sons Carloman and Pepin the Short, who succeeded him after his death in 741. [ 11 ] The brothers placed the Merovingian Childeric III on the throne in 743. [ 12 ] In 744 Pepin married Bertrada , a member of an influential noble family. [ 13 ] [ 14 ] In 747 Carloman abdicated and entered a monastery in Rome. He had at least two sons; the elder, Drogo , took his place. [ 15 ] Birth Charlemagne's year of birth is uncertain, although it was most likely in 748. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] An older tradition based on three sources, however, gives a birth year of 742. The 9th-century biographer Einhard reports Charlemagne as being 72 years old at the time of his death; the Royal Frankish Annals imprecisely gives his age at death as about 71, and his original epitaph called him a septuagenarian. [ 20 ] Einhard said he did not know much about Charlemagne's early life; some modern scholars believe that, not knowing the emperor's true age, he still sought to present a date in keeping with the Roman imperial biographies of Suetonius , which he used as a model. [ 21 ] [ 22 ] All three sources may have been influenced by Psalm 90 : "The days of our years are threescore years and ten". [ 23 ] Historian Karl Ferdinand Werner challenged the acceptance of 742 as the Frankish king's birth year, citing an addition to the Annales Petaviani which records Charlemagne's birth in 747. [ 24 ] [ a ] Lorsch Abbey commemorated Charlemagne's date of birth as 2 April from the mid-9th century, and this date is likely to be genuine. [ 25 ] [ 26 ] Matthias Becher built on Werner's work and showed that 2 April in the year recorded would have actually been in 748, since the annalists recorded the start of the year from Easter rather than 1 January. [ 16 ] Presently, most scholars accept April 748 for Charlemagne's birth. [ 27 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] Charlemagne's place of birth is unknown: the Frankish palaces in Vaires-sur-Marne , Quierzy and Herstal are among the places suggested by scholars; [ 28 ] Pepin the Short held an assembly in Düren in 748, but it cannot be proved that it took place in April or if Bertrada was with him. [ 29 ] Language and education Sketch believed to be of Charlemagne, [ b ] c.  800 The patrius sermo ("native tongue") [ 28 ] that Einhard refers to with regard to Charlemagne, was a Germanic language. [ 31 ] [ 32 ] Due to the prevalence in Francia of " rustic Roman ", he was probably functionally bilingual in Germanic and Romance dialects at an early age. [ 28 ] Charlemagne also spoke Latin, and according to Einhard, could understand and (perhaps) speak some Greek. [ 33 ] Some 19th-century historians tried to use the Oaths of Strasbourg to determine Charlemagne's native language. They assumed the text's copyist Nithard , being a grandson of Charlemagne, would have spoken the same dialect as his grandfather, giving rise to the assumption that Charlemagne would have spoken a language closely related to the one used in the oath, which is a form of Old High German ancestral to the modern Rhenish Franconian dialects. [ 31 ] [ 32 ] Other authors have instead taken the place of Charlemagne's education and main residence of Aachen to postulate that Charlemagne most likely spoke a form of Moselle- or Ripuarian Franconian . In any case, all three dialects would have been closely related, mutually intelligible and, while classified as Old High German, none of the dialects involved can be considered typical of Old High German, showing varying degrees of participation in the High German consonant shift , as well as certain similarities with Old Dutch , the presumed language of the previous Merovingian dynasty , mirroring the linguistic diversity still typical of the region today. [ 28 ] Charlemagne's father Pepin had been educated at the abbey of Saint-Denis , although the extent of Charlemagne's formal education is unknown. [ 34 ] He almost certainly was trained in military matters as a youth in Pepin's itinerant court . [ 35 ] [ 36 ] Charlemagne also asserted his own education in the liberal arts in encouraging their study by his children and others, although it is unknown whether his study was as a child or at court during his later life. [ 35 ] The question of Charlemagne's literacy is debated, with little direct evidence from contemporary sources. He normally had texts read aloud to him and dictated responses and decrees, but this was not unusual even for a literate ruler at the time. [ 37 ] Historian Johannes Fried considers it likely that Charlemagne would have been able to read, [ 38 ] but the medievalist Paul Dutton writes "the evidence for his ability to read is circumstantial and inferential at best" [ 39 ] and concludes that it is likely that he never properly mastered the skill. [ 40 ] Einhard makes no direct mention of Charlemagne reading and records that he only attempted to learn to write later in life. [ 41 ] Accession and reign with Carloman There are only occasional references to Charlemagne in the Frankish annals during his father's lifetime. [ 42 ] By 751 or 752, Pepin had deposed Childeric and replaced him as king. [ 43 ] Early Carolingian-influenced sources claim that Pepin's seizure of the throne was sanctioned beforehand by Pope Stephen II , [ 44 ] but modern historians dispute this. [ 45 ] [ 12 ] It is possible that papal approval came only when Stephen travelled to Francia in 754 (apparently to request Pepin's aid against the Lombards), and on this trip anointed Pepin as king; this legitimised his rule. [ 46 ] [ 45 ] Charlemagne was sent to greet and escort Stephen; he and his younger brother Carloman were anointed with their father. [ 47 ] Pepin sidelined Drogo around the same time, sending him and his half-brother Grifo to a monastery. [ 48 ] Charlemagne began issuing charters in his own name in 760. The following year, he joined his father's campaign against Aquitaine . [ 49 ] Aquitaine, led by Dukes Hunald and Waiofar , was constantly in rebellion during Pepin's reign. [ 50 ] Pepin fell ill on his campaign there and died on 24 September 768; Charlemagne and Carloman succeeded their father. [ 51 ] They had separate coronations, Charlemagne at Noyon and Carloman at Soissons , on 9 October. [ 52 ] The brothers maintained separate palaces and spheres of influence, although they were considered joint rulers of a single Frankish kingdom. [ 53 ] The Royal Frankish Annals report that Charlemagne ruled Austrasia and Carloman ruled Burgundy , Provence , Aquitaine, and Alamannia , with no mention of which brother received Neustria. [ 53 ] The immediate concern of the brothers was the ongoing uprising in Aquitaine. [ 54 ] They marched into Aquitaine together, but Carloman returned to Francia for unknown reasons and Charlemagne completed the campaign on his own. [ 54 ] Charlemagne's capture of Duke Hunald marked the end of ten years of war that had been waged in the attempt to bring Aquitaine into line. [ 54 ] Carloman's refusal to participate in the war against Aquitaine led to a rift between the kings. [ 54 ] [ 55 ] It is uncertain why Carloman abandoned the campaign; the brothers may have disagreed about control of the territory, [ 54 ] [ 56 ] or Carloman was focused on securing his rule in the north of Francia. [ 56 ] Regardless of the strife between the kings, they maintained a joint rule for practical reasons. [ 57 ] Charlemagne and Carloman worked to obtain the support of the clergy and local elites to solidify their positions. [ 58 ] Pope Stephen III was elected in 768 but was briefly deposed by Antipope Constantine II before being restored to Rome. [ 59 ] Stephen's papacy experienced continuing factional struggles, so he sought support from the Frankish kings. [ 60 ] Both brothers sent troops to Rome, each hoping to exert their own influence. [ 61 ] The Lombard King Desiderius also had interests in Roman affairs, and Charlemagne attempted to enlist him as an ally. [ 62 ] Desiderius already had alliances with Bavaria and Benevento through the marriages of his daughters to their dukes, [ 63 ] and an alliance with Charlemagne would add to his influence. [ 62 ] Charlemagne's mother Bertrada went on his behalf to Lombardy in 770 and brokered a marriage alliance before returning to Francia with his new bride. [ 64 ] Desiderius's daughter is traditionally known as Desiderata , although she may have been named Gerperga. [ 65 ] [ 54 ] Anxious about the prospect of a Frankish–Lombard alliance, Pope Stephen sent a letter to both Frankish kings decrying the marriage and separately sought closer ties with Carloman. [ 66 ] Charlemagne had already had a relationship with the Frankish noblewoman Himiltrude , and they had a son in 769 named Pepin . [ 52 ] Paul the Deacon wrote in his 784 Gesta Episcoporum Mettensium that Pepin was born "before legal marriage" but does not say whether Charles and Himiltrude ever married, were joined in a non-canonical marriage ( friedelehe ), or married after Pepin was born. [ 67 ] Pope Stephen's letter described the relationship as a legitimate marriage, but he had a vested interest in preventing Charlemagne from marrying Desiderius's daughter. [ 68 ] Carloman died suddenly on 4 December 771, leaving Charlemagne sole king of the Franks. [ 69 ] He moved immediately to secure his hold on his brother's territory, forcing Carloman's widow Gerberga to flee to Desiderius's court in Lombardy with their children. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Charlemagne ended his marriage to Desiderius's daughter and married Hildegard , daughter of Count Gerold , a powerful magnate in Carloman's kingdom. [ 71 ] This was a reaction to Desiderius's sheltering of Carloman's family [ 72 ] and a move to secure Gerold's support. [ 73 ] [ 74 ] ^ Waldman & Mason 2006 , pp. 270, 274–275. ^ Heather 2009 , pp. 305–306. ^ Costambeys, Innes & MacLean 2011 , p. 35. ^ Costambeys, Innes & MacLean 2011 , pp. 35–37. ^ Costambeys, Innes & MacLean 2011 , p. 38. ^ Frassetto 2003 , p. 292. ^ Frassetto 2003 , pp. 292–293. ^ Nelson 2019 , p. 16. ^ Waldman & Mason 2006 , p. 271. ^ McKitterick 2008 , p. 65. ^ Costambeys, Innes & MacLean 2011 , pp. 51–52. ^ a b McKitterick 2008 , p. 71. ^ Nelson 2019 , pp. 61–65. ^ Fried 2016 , p. 17. ^ Costambeys, Innes & MacLean 2011 , p. 55. ^ a b c d Nelson 2019 , p. 29. ^ a b Costambeys, Innes & MacLean 2011 , p. 56. ^ Fried 2016 , p. 15. ^ Collins 1998 , p. 32. ^ Barbero 2004 , p. 11. ^ Becher 2005 , p. 41. ^ Nelson 2019 , pp. 28–28. ^ Hägermann 2011 , p. xxx. ^ Barbero 2004 , p. 350 n7. ^ Nelson 2019 , p. 28. ^ Barbero 2004 , p. 12. ^ Fried 2016 , pp. 15–16. ^ a b c d Nelson 2019 , p. 68. ^ Hägermann 2011 , p. xxxiii. ^ Fried 2016 , pp. 262–263. ^ a b Chambers & Wilkie 2014 , p. 33. ^ a b McKitterick 2008 , p. 318. ^ Fried 2016 , p. 24. ^ Dutton 2016 , pp. 71–72. ^ a b Dutton 2016 , p. 72. ^ Fried 2016 , pp. 14–15. ^ Dutton 2016 , pp. 75–80. ^ Fried 2016 , p. 271. ^ Dutton 2016 , p. 75. ^ Dutton 2016 , p. 91. ^ Collins 1998 , p. 120. ^ McKitterick 2008 , p. 73. ^ McKitterick 2008 , pp. 71–72. ^ Costambeys, Innes & MacLean 2011 , p. 32. ^ a b Costambeys, Innes & MacLean 2011 , p. 34. ^ McKitterick 2008 , p. 72. ^ McKitterick 2008 , pp. 72–73. ^ Costambeys, Innes & MacLean 2011 , p. 62. ^ McKitterick 2008 , p. 74. ^ Costambeys, Innes & MacLean 2011 , p. 64. ^ McKitterick 2008 , p. 75. ^ a b Nelson 2019 , p. 91. ^ a b McKitterick 2008 , p. 77. ^ a b c d e f Costambeys, Innes & MacLean 2011 , p. 65. ^ McKitterick 2008 , p. 79. ^ a b McKitterick 2008 , p. 80. ^ McKitterick 2008 , p. 81. ^ McKitterick 2008 , p. 82. ^ Nelson 2019 , p. 99. ^ Nelson 2019 , pp. 99, 101. ^ Nelson 2019 , pp. 100–101. ^ a b Nelson 2019 , p. 101. ^ Nelson 2019 , pp. 84–85, 101. ^ Nelson 2019 , p. 106. ^ Nelson 2007 , p. 31. ^ Nelson 2019 , pp. 104–106. ^ Goffart 1986 . ^ McKitterick 2008 , p. 84. ^ McKitterick 2008 , p. 87. ^ Nelson 2019 , pp. 108–109. ^ a b Costambeys, Innes & MacLean 2011 , p. 66. ^ Nelson 2019 , pp. 109–110. ^ McKitterick 2008 , p. 89. ^ Nelson 2019 , pp. 110–111. 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Legacy Political legacy Partition of the Carolingian Empire after the 843 Treaty of Verdun The stability and peace of Charlemagne's reign did not outlive him for a long time. Louis' reign was marked by strife, including a number of rebellions by his sons. After Louis' death, the empire was divided among his sons into West , East , and Middle Francia by the Treaty of Verdun . [ 1 ] Middle Francia was divided several more times over the course of subsequent generations. [ 2 ] Carolingians would rule – with some interruptions – in East Francia (later the Kingdom of Germany ) until 911 [ 3 ] and in West Francia (which would become France ) until 987. [ 4 ] After 887 the imperial title was held sporadically by a series of non-dynastic Italian rulers [ 5 ] before it lapsed in 924. [ 6 ] East Frankish King Otto the Great conquered Italy and was crowned emperor in 962. [ 7 ] By this time, the eastern and western parts of Charlemagne's former empire had already developed distinct languages and cultures. [ 8 ] Otto founded (or re-established) the Holy Roman Empire, which would last until its dissolution in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars . [ 9 ] According to historian Jennifer Davis, Charlemagne "invented medieval rulership," and his influence can be seen at least into the 19th century. [ 10 ] Charlemagne is often known as "the father of Europe" because of the influence of his reign and the legacy he left across the large area of the continent. [ 11 ] The political structures he established remained in place through his Carolingian successors and continued to exert influence into the 11th century. [ 12 ] Charlemagne was an ancestor of several European ruling houses, including the Capetian dynasty , [ a ] the Ottonian dynasty , [ b ] the House of Luxembourg , [ c ] and the House of Ivrea . [ d ] The Ottonians and Capetians, direct successors of the Carolingans, drew on the legacy of Charlemagne to bolster their legitimacy and prestige; the Ottonians and their successors held their German coronations in Aachen through the Middle Ages. [ 17 ] The marriage of Philip II of France to Isabella of Hainault (a direct descendant of Charlemagne) was seen as a sign of increased legitimacy for their son Louis VIII , and the French kings' association with Charlemagne's legacy was stressed until the monarchy's end. [ 18 ] German and French rulers such as Frederick Barbarossa and Napoleon cited the influence of Charlemagne and associated themselves with him. [ 19 ] Both German and French monarchs considered themselves successors of Charlemagne, enumerating him as "Charles I" in their regnal lists. [ 20 ] During the Second World War , Aachen's historical association with Charlemagne gave it symbolic importance for both Germans and Americans alike. [ 21 ] [ 22 ] For Germans, the city represented the heart of the Carolingian legacy—Charlemagne made Aachen the political centre of his realm—and it later served as the customary coronation city of the German kings of the Holy Roman Empire. For Americans, its capture carried weight as it marked both the first major German city taken by Allied forces and a symbolic challenge to Hitler's emphasis on defending a city so closely tied to Charlemagne. [ 23 ] [ 24 ] As a result, Hitler insisted on a staunch defense of Aachen, which led to a protracted and destructive battle in October 1944. [ 25 ] Since 1949 Aachen has awarded an international prize (the Karlspreis der Stadt Aachen) in honour of Charlemagne. It is awarded annually to those who promote European unity. [ 19 ] Recipients of the prize include Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi (founder of the pan-European movement), Alcide De Gasperi , and Winston Churchill . [ 26 ] Carolingian Renaissance Contacts with the wider Mediterranean world through Spain and Italy, the influx of foreign scholars at court, and the relative stability and length of Charlemagne's reign led to a cultural revival known as the Carolingian Renaissance. [ 27 ] Although the beginnings of this revival can be seen under his predecessors Charles Martel and Pepin, Charlemagne took an active and direct role in shaping intellectual life which led to the revival's zenith. [ 28 ] Charlemagne promoted learning as a matter of policy and direct patronage, with the aim of creating a more effective clergy. [ 29 ] The Admonitio generalis and Epistola de litteris colendis outline his policies and aims for education. [ 30 ] Intellectual life at court was dominated by Irish, Anglo-Saxon, Visigothic and Italian scholars, including Dungal of Bobbio, Alcuin of York, Theodulf of Orléans , and Peter of Pisa ; Franks such as Einhard and Angelbert also made substantial contributions. [ 31 ] Aside from the intellectual activity at the palace, Charlemagne promoted ecclesiastical schools and publicly funded schools for the children of the elite and future clergy. [ 32 ] Students learned basic Latin literacy and grammar, arithmetic, and other subjects of the medieval liberal arts. [ 33 ] From their education, it was expected that even rural priests could provide their parishioners with basic instruction in religious matters and (possibly) the literacy required for worship. [ 34 ] Latin was standardised and its use brought into territories well beyond the former Roman Empire, forming a second language community of speakers and writers and sustaining Latin creativity in the Middle Ages. [ 35 ] Carolingian authors produced extensive works, including legal treatises, histories, poetry, and religious texts. [ 36 ] [ 37 ] Scriptoria in monasteries and cathedrals focused on copying new and old works, producing an estimated 90,000 manuscripts during the 9th century. [ 38 ] The Carolingian minuscule script was developed and popularised in medieval copying, influencing Renaissance and modern typefaces. [ 39 ] Scholar John J. Contreni considers the educational and learning revival under Charlemagne and his successors "one of the most durable and resilient elements of the Carolingian legacy". [ 39 ] Memory and historiography Charlemagne is a frequent subject and inspiration for medieval writers after his death. Einhard's Vita Karoli Magni , according to Fried, "can be said to have revived the defunct literary genre of the secular biography." [ 40 ] Einhard drew on classical sources such as Suetonius' The Twelve Caesars , the orations of Cicero , and Tacitus ' Agricola to frame his work's structure and style. [ 41 ] The Carolingian period also saw a revival of the mirrors for princes genre. [ 42 ] The author of the Latin poem Visio Karoli Magni , written c.  865 , uses facts (apparently from Einhard) and his own observations on the decline of Charlemagne's family after their civil wars later in the 9th century as the bases of a visionary tale about Charles meeting a prophetic spectre in a dream. [ 43 ] Notker's Gesta Karoli Magni , written for Charlemagne's great-grandson Charles the Fat, presents moral anecdotes ( exempla ) to highlight the emperor's qualities as a ruler. [ 44 ] Manfred III of Saluzzo depicted as Charlemagne ( Castello della Manta , 1420s) Charlemagne grew over the centuries as a figure of myth and emulation; Matthias Becher writes that over 1,000 legends are recorded about him, far outstripping subsequent emperors and kings. [ 45 ] Later medieval writers depict Charlemagne as a crusader and Christian warrior. [ 45 ] [ 46 ] Charlemagne is the main figure of the medieval literary cycle known as the Matter of France . Works in this cycle, which originated during the Crusades , centre on characterisations of the emperor as a leader of Christian knights in wars against Muslims. The cycle includes chansons de geste (epic poems) such as the Song of Roland and chronicles such as the Historia Caroli Magni , also known as the (Pseudo-)Turpin Chronicle . [ 47 ] Charlemagne is depicted as one of the Nine Worthies , a fixture in medieval literature and art as an exemplar of a Christian king. [ 48 ] Despite his central role in these legends, author Thomas Bulfinch notes "romancers represent him as often weak and passionate, the victim of treacherous counsellors, and at the mercy of turbulent barons, on whose prowess he depends for the maintenance of his throne." [ 49 ] Attention to Charlemagne became more scholarly in the early modern period as Eindhard's Vita and other sources began to be published. [ 50 ] Political philosophers debated his legacy; Montesquieu viewed him as the first constitutional monarch and protector of freemen, but Voltaire saw him as a despotic ruler and representative of the medieval period as a Dark Age . [ 51 ] As early as the 16th century, debate between German and French writers began about Charlemagne's "nationality". [ 52 ] These contrasting portraits—a French Charlemagne versus a German Karl der Große —became especially pronounced during the 19th century with Napoleon's use of Charlemagne's legacy and the rise of German nationalism . [ 46 ] [ 53 ] German historiography and popular perception focused on the Massacre of Verden, emphasised with Charlemagne as the "butcher" of the Germanic Saxons or downplayed as an unfortunate part of the legacy of a great German ruler. [ 54 ] In Nazi Germany some commentators criticized Charlemagne for his subjugation of the Saxons. [ 55 ] This quickly stopped as Hitler endorsed a portrait of Charlemagne as a great unifier of disparate German tribes into a common nation, allowing Hitler to co-opt Charlemagne's legacy as an ideological model for his expansionist policies. [ 56 ] [ e ] Historiography after World War II focused on Charlemagne as "the father of Europe" rather than a nationalistic figure, [ 58 ] a view first advanced during the 19th century by Friedrich Schlegel , a German romantic philosopher . [ 46 ] This view has led to Charlemagne's adoption as a political symbol of European integration . [ 59 ] Modern historians increasingly place Charlemagne in the context of the wider Mediterranean world, following the work of Henri Pirenne . [ 60 ] Religious influence and veneration Further information: Charlemagne and church music The Palatine Chapel , built by Charlemagne at the Aachen palace Charlemagne gave much attention to religious and ecclesiastical affairs, holding 23 synods during his reign. His synods were called to address specific issues at particular times but generally dealt with church administration and organisation, education of the clergy, and the proper forms of liturgy and worship. [ 61 ] Charlemagne used the Christian faith as a unifying factor in the realm and, in turn, worked to impose unity on the church. [ 62 ] [ 63 ] He implemented an edited version of the Dionysio-Hadriana book of canon law acquired from Pope Adrian, required use of the Rule of St. Benedict in monasteries throughout the empire, and promoted a standardised liturgy adapted from the rites of the Roman Church to conform with Frankish practices. [ 64 ] Carolingian policies promoting unity did not eliminate the diverse practices throughout the empire, but created a shared ecclesiastical identity—according to Rosamond McKitterick, "unison, not unity." [ 65 ] The condition of all his subjects as a "Christian people" was an important concern. [ 66 ] Charlemagne's policies encouraged preaching to the laity, particularly in vernacular languages they would understand. [ 67 ] He believed it essential to be able to recite the Lord's Prayer and the Apostles' Creed , and he made efforts to ensure that the clergy taught them and other basics of Christian morality. [ 68 ] Thomas   F.   X.   Noble writes that the efforts of Charlemagne and his successors to standardise Christian doctrine and practices and harmonise Frankish practices were essential steps in the development of Christianity in Europe, and the Roman Catholic or Latin Church "as a historical phenomenon, not as a theological or ecclesiological one, is a Carolingian construction." [ 69 ] [ 70 ] He says that the medieval European concept of Christendom as an overarching community of Western Christians, rather than a collection of local traditions, is the result of Carolingian policies and ideology. [ 71 ] Charlemagne's doctrinal policies promoting the use of filioque and opposing the Second Council of Nicea were key steps in the growing divide between Western and Eastern Christianity . [ 72 ] Emperor Otto III attempted to have Charlemagne canonised in 1000. [ 73 ] In 1165 Barbarossa persuaded Antipope Paschal III to elevate Charlemagne to sainthood. [ 73 ] Since Paschal's acts were not considered valid, Charlemagne was not recognised as a saint by the Holy See . [ 74 ] Despite this lack of official recognition, his cult was observed in Aachen, Reims, Frankfurt, Zurich and Regensburg, and he has been venerated in France since the reign of Charles V . [ 75 ] Charlemagne also drew attention from figures of the Protestant Reformation , with Martin Luther criticising his apparent subjugation to the papacy by accepting his coronation from Leo. [ 51 ] John Calvin and other Protestant thinkers viewed him as a forerunner of the Reformation, noting the Libri Carolini 's condemnation of the worship of images and relics and conflicts by Charlemagne and his successors with the temporal power of the popes. [ 74 ] ^ Costambeys, Innes & MacLean 2011 , pp. 379–381. ^ Costambeys, Innes & MacLean 2011 , p. 394. ^ Heather 2009 , p. 368. ^ Riché 1993 , p. 278. ^ Costambeys, Innes & MacLean 2011 , pp. 424–427. ^ Arnold 1997 , p. 83. ^ Heather 2009 , p. 369. ^ Scales 2012 , pp. 155–182. ^ Davies 1996 , pp. 316–317. ^ Davis 2015 , p. 434. ^ Freeman 2017 , p. 19. ^ Costambeys, Innes & MacLean 2011 , pp. 407, 432. ^ Lewis 1977 , pp. 246–247, n 94. ^ Jackman 2010 , pp. 9–12. ^ Tanner 2004 , pp. 263–265. ^ Bouchard 2010 , pp. 129–131. ^ Fried 2016 , p. 528. ^ Fried 2016 , pp. 527–528. ^ a b Davis 2015 , p. 433. ^ Williams 1885 , pp. 446–47. ^ Chamberlin 2025 , p. 475. ^ McKitterick 2011 , p. 153. ^ Newland 2010 , p. 279. ^ Mansoor 1999 , p. 180. ^ US Army CMH 2017 , p. 16. ^ "Laureates" . ^ Contreni 1984 , p. 60. ^ Contreni 1984 , pp. 59, 61, 64. ^ Contreni 1995 , p. 709. ^ Contreni 1984 , p. 64. ^ Contreni 1984 , pp. 61, 68. ^ Contreni 1984 , pp. 65–66. ^ Contreni 1984 , pp. 66–67. ^ Contreni 1995 , p. 715. ^ Leonhardt 2016 , pp. 160–162. ^ Contreni 1995 , pp. 748–756. ^ Contreni 1984 , pp. 70. ^ Contreni 1995 , p. 711. ^ a b Contreni 1984 , p. 73. ^ Fried 2016 , p. 277. ^ McKitterick 2008 , pp. 15–20. ^ Fried 2016 , pp. 518–519. ^ Geary 1987 , pp. 275–283. ^ McKitterick 2008 , p. 20. ^ a b Becher 2005 , p. 138. ^ a b c Fried 2016 , p. 539. ^ Hardman & Ailes 2017 , pp. 1–9. ^ Kuskin 1999 , pp. 513, 547–548 fn24. ^ Bulfinch 1864 , pp. xxii–xxiv. ^ Becher 2005 , p. 142–144. ^ a b Becher 2005 , p. 144. ^ Becher 2005 , p. 142. ^ Becher 2005 , p. 146. ^ Becher 2005 , pp. 146–148. ^ Fried 2016 , p. 541–542. ^ Fried 2016 , pp. 542–546. ^ Tessin 1974 , p. 188. ^ Becher 2005 , p. 148. ^ Fried 2016 , p. 548. ^ Fried 2016 , pp. 549–551. ^ Noble 2015 , p. 294. ^ Noble 2015 , pp. 289–290, 295–296. ^ McKitterick 1996 , p. 61. ^ Noble 2015 , pp. 269–297. ^ McKitterick 1996 , p. 82. ^ Noble 2015 , pp. 287–288. ^ Noble 2015 , p. 294–295. ^ Noble 2015 , pp. 301–302. ^ Noble 2015 , p. 287. ^ Noble 2015 , pp. 306–307. ^ Noble 2015 , pp. 292, 306–307. ^ Siecienski 2010 , p. 87. ^ a b Fried 2016 , p. 537. ^ a b Becher 2005 , p. 143. ^ Fried 2016 , p. 538. 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