Napoleon

Early life Napoleon's family was of Italian origin. His paternal ancestors, the Buonapartes, descended from a minor Tuscan noble family who emigrated to Corsica in the 16th century. His maternal ancestors, the Ramolinos, descended from a noble family from Lombardy . [ 1 ] Napoleon's parents, Carlo Maria Buonaparte and Maria Letizia Ramolino , lived in the Maison Bonaparte in Ajaccio , where Napoleon was born on 15 August 1769. He had an elder brother, Joseph , and six younger siblings: Lucien , Elisa , Louis , Pauline , Caroline , and Jérôme . [ 2 ] Five more siblings were stillborn or did not survive infancy. [ 3 ] Napoleon was baptized as a Catholic under the name Napoleone di Buonaparte . In his youth, his name was also spelled as Nabulione , Nabulio , Napolionne , and Napulione . [ 4 ] Napoleon was born one year after the Republic of Genoa ceded Corsica to France through the Treaty of Versailles . [ 5 ] [ a ] His father supported Pasquale Paoli during the Corsican war of independence against France. After the Corsican defeat at the Battle of Ponte Novu in 1769 and Paoli's exile to Britain, Carlo became friends with the French governor Charles Louis de Marbeuf , who became his patron and a godfather to Napoleon. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] With Marbeuf's support, Carlo was named Corsican representative to the court of Louis XVI , and Napoleon obtained a royal bursary to a military academy in mainland France. [ 11 ] [ 12 ] Napoleon's father, Carlo Buonaparte , fought for Corsican independence under Pasquale Paoli . After their defeat, he eventually became the island's representative to Louis XVI 's court. The dominant influence of Napoleon's childhood was his mother, whose firm discipline restrained a rambunctious child. [ 11 ] Later in life, Napoleon said, "The future destiny of the child is always the work of the mother." [ 13 ] Napoleon's noble, moderately affluent background afforded him greater opportunities to study than were available to a typical Corsican of the time. [ 14 ] In January 1779, aged 9, Napoleon moved to the French mainland and enrolled at a religious school in Autun to improve his French, [ 15 ] his mother tongues being Corsican and Italian. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] Although he eventually became fluent in French, he spoke it with a Corsican accent, and his French spelling was poor. [ 18 ] In May he transferred to the military academy at Brienne-le-Château where he was routinely bullied by his peers for his accent, birthplace, short stature, mannerisms, and poor French. [ 16 ] He became reserved and melancholic, applying himself to reading. An examiner observed that Napoleon "has always been distinguished for his application in mathematics. He is fairly well acquainted with history and geography ... This boy would make an excellent sailor". [ b ] [ 20 ] One story of Napoleon at the school is that he led junior students to victory against senior students in a snowball fight, which allegedly showed his leadership abilities. [ 21 ] But the story was told only after Napoleon had become famous. [ 22 ] In his later years at Brienne, Napoleon became an outspoken Corsican nationalist and admirer of Paoli. [ 23 ] In September 1784 Napoleon was admitted to the École militaire in Paris where he trained to become an artillery officer. He excelled at mathematics and read widely in geography, history and literature. However, he was poor at French and German. [ 24 ] His father's death in February 1785 cut the family income and forced him to complete the two-year course in one year. In September he was examined by the famed scientist Pierre-Simon Laplace and became the first Corsican to graduate from the École militaire . [ 25 ] [ 26 ] ^ McLynn (1997) , p. 2. ^ Zamoyski (2018) , pp. xiv, 14. ^ McLynn (1997) , p. 4. ^ Dwyer (2008a) , p. xv ^ a b McLynn (1997) , p. 6 ^ McLynn (1997) , p. 20. ^ "Corsica" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Archived from the original on 28 November 2017. ^ Roberts (2014) , p. 142. ^ Zamoyski (2018) , pp. 13–17. ^ Ellis, Geoffrey (1997b). "Chapter 2" . Napoleon . Pearson Education Limited. ISBN   978-1317874690 . Archived from the original on 22 August 2022. ^ a b Cronin (1994) , pp. 20–21. ^ Zamoyski (2018) , pp. 16–20. ^ Chamberlain, Alexander (1896). The Child and Childhood in Folk Thought: (The Child in Primitive Culture) . MacMillan. p. 385. ISBN   978-1-4219-8748-4 . Archived from the original on 27 February 2024 . Retrieved 15 October 2020 . {{ cite book }} : ISBN / Date incompatibility ( help ) ^ Cronin (1994) , p. 27. ^ Zamoyski (2018) , p. 19. ^ a b Parker, Harold T. (1971). "The Formation of Napoleon's Personality: An Exploratory Essay" . French Historical Studies . 7 (1): 6– 26. doi : 10.2307/286104 . ISSN   0016-1071 . JSTOR   286104 . Archived from the original on 25 February 2018 . Retrieved 2 December 2023 . ^ Roberts (2014) , p. 11. ^ McLynn (1997) , p. 18. ^ Wells (1992) , p. 74. ^ McLynn (1997) , p. 21. ^ Chandler (1973) , pp. 12–14. ^ Zamoyski (2018) , pp. 22–23. ^ Zamoyski (2018) , p. 28. ^ Zamoyski (2018) , pp. 26, 30–31. ^ Dwyer (2008a) , pp. 38–42 ^ McLynn (1997) , p. 26. Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ).

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Early career 800km 497miles 19 Saint Helena 18 Rochefort 17 Waterloo 16 Elba 15 Dizier 14 Leipzig 13 Berezina 12 Borodino 11 Wagram 10 Somosierra 9 Friedland 8 Jena 7 Austerlitz 6 Marengo 5 Cairo 4 Malta 3 Arcole 2 Paris 1 Toulon     Return to Corsica Bonaparte, aged 23, as lieutenant-colonel of a battalion of Corsican Republican volunteers . Portrait made in 1835 by Henri Félix Emmanuel Philippoteaux . Upon graduating in September 1785, Bonaparte was commissioned a second lieutenant in La Fère artillery regiment . [ 1 ] Bonaparte served in Valence and Auxonne until after the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789 but spent long periods of leave in Corsica, which fed his Corsican nationalism. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] In September 1789 he returned to Corsica and promoted the French revolutionary cause. Paoli returned to the island in July 1790, but he had no sympathy for Bonaparte, as he deemed his father a traitor for having deserted the cause of Corsican independence. [ 4 ] [ 5 ] Bonaparte plunged into a complex three-way struggle among royalists, revolutionaries, and Corsican nationalists. He became a supporter of the Jacobins and joined the pro-French Corsican Republicans who opposed Paoli's policy and his aspirations to secede. [ 6 ] He was given command over a battalion of Corsican volunteers and promoted to captain in the regular army in 1792, despite exceeding his leave of absence and a dispute between his volunteers and the French garrison in Ajaccio . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] In February 1793 Bonaparte took part in the failed French expedition to Sardinia . Following allegations that Paoli had sabotaged the expedition and that his regime was corrupt and incompetent, the French National Convention outlawed him. In early June, Bonaparte and 400 French troops failed to capture Ajaccio from Corsican volunteers, and the island came under the control of Paoli's supporters. When Bonaparte learned that the Corsican assembly had condemned him and his family, the Buonapartes fled to Toulon on the French mainland. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Siege of Toulon Main article: Siege of Toulon (1793) Bonaparte at the Siege of Toulon , 1793 , by Édouard Detaille Bonaparte returned to his regiment in Nice and was made captain of a coastal battery . [ 11 ] In July 1793 he published a pamphlet, Le souper de Beaucaire (Supper at Beaucaire ), demonstrating his support for the National Convention which was heavily influenced by the Jacobins. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] In September, with the help of his fellow Corsican Antoine Christophe Saliceti , Bonaparte was appointed artillery commander of the republican forces sent to recapture the port of Toulon, which was occupied by allied forces. [ 14 ] He quickly increased the available artillery and proposed a plan to capture a hill fort where republican guns could dominate the city's harbour and force the allies to evacuate. The successful assault on the position on 16–17 December led to the capture of the city. [ 15 ] Toulon brought Bonaparte to the attention of powerful men including Augustin Robespierre , the younger brother of Maximilien Robespierre , a leading Jacobin. He was promoted to brigadier general and put in charge of defences on the Mediterranean coast. In February 1794 he was made artillery commander of the Army of Italy and devised plans to attack the Kingdom of Sardinia . [ 16 ] [ 17 ] The French army carried out Bonaparte's plan in the Second Battle of Saorgio in April 1794 and then advanced to seize Ormea in the mountains. From Ormea it headed west to outflank the Austro-Sardinian positions around Saorge . After this campaign, Augustin Robespierre sent Bonaparte on a mission to the Republic of Genoa to determine the country's intentions towards France. [ 18 ] [ 19 ] 13 Vendémiaire Main article: 13 Vendémiaire Journée du 13 Vendémiaire , artillery fire in front of the Church of Saint-Roch, Paris , Rue Saint-Honoré After the Fall of Maximilien Robespierre in July 1794, Bonaparte's association with leading Jacobins made him politically suspect to the new regime. He was arrested on 9 August but released two weeks later. [ 20 ] [ 21 ] [ 22 ] He was asked to draw up plans to attack Italian positions as part of France's war with Austria, and in March 1795 he took part in an expedition to take back Corsica from the British, but the French were repulsed by the Royal Navy . [ 23 ] From 1794 Bonaparte was in a romantic relationship with Désirée Clary , whose sister Julie Clary had married Bonaparte's elder brother Joseph. [ 24 ] [ 25 ] In April 1795 Bonaparte was assigned to the Army of the West , which was engaged in the War in the Vendée —a civil war and royalist counter-revolution in the Vendée region. As an infantry command, it was a demotion from artillery general, and he pleaded poor health to avoid the posting. [ 26 ] During this period he wrote the romantic novella Clisson et Eugénie , about a soldier and his lover, in a clear parallel to Bonaparte's own relationship with Clary. [ 27 ] In August he obtained a position with the Bureau of Topography, where he worked on military planning. [ 27 ] On 15 September he was removed from the list of generals in regular service for refusing to serve in the Vendée campaign. [ 28 ] He sought a transfer to Constantinople to offer his services to Sultan Selim III . The request was eventually granted, but he never took up the post. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] On 3 October royalists in Paris declared a rebellion against the National Convention. [ 31 ] Paul Barras , a leader of the Thermidorian Reaction , knew of Bonaparte's military exploits at Toulon and made him second in command of the forces defending the convention in the Tuileries Palace . Bonaparte had seen the massacre of the king's Swiss Guard during the Insurrection of 10 August 1792 there three years earlier and realized that artillery would be the key to its defence. He ordered a young cavalry officer, Joachim Murat , to seize cannons, and Bonaparte deployed them in key positions. On 5 October 1795— 13 Vendémiaire An IV in the French Republican calendar —he fired on the rebels with canister rounds (described by Thomas Carlyle as "the whiff of grapeshot "). [ 32 ] About 300 to 1,400 rebels died in the uprising. [ 31 ] [ 33 ] [ 34 ] Bonaparte's role in defeating the rebellion earned him and his family the patronage of the new government, the French Directory . [ 35 ] On 26 October he was promoted to commander of the Army of the Interior , and in January 1796, he was appointed head of the Army of Italy. [ 36 ] Within weeks of the Vendémiaire uprising , Bonaparte was romantically involved with Joséphine de Beauharnais , the former mistress of Barras. Josephine had been born in the French colonies in the Lesser Antilles , and her family owned slaves on sugar plantations . [ 37 ] The couple married on 9 March 1796 in a civil ceremony. [ 38 ] Bonaparte began to habitually style himself "Napoleon Bonaparte" rather than using the Italian form "Napoleone di Buonaparte." [ 39 ] [ 40 ] [ 41 ] First Italian campaign Main article: Italian Campaign of 1796–1797 Bonaparte at the Pont d'Arcole , by Baron Antoine-Jean Gros , ( c.  1801 ), Musée du Louvre , Paris Two days after the marriage, Bonaparte left Paris to take command of the Army of Italy. He went on the offensive, hoping to defeat the Kingdom of Sardinia in Piedmont before their Austrian allies could intervene. In a series of victories during the Montenotte campaign , he knocked the Piedmontese out of the war in two weeks. [ 42 ] The French then focused on the Austrians, laying siege to Mantua . The Austrians launched offensives against the French to break the siege, but Bonaparte defeated every relief effort, winning the Battle of Castiglione , the Battle of Bassano , the Battle of Arcole , and the Battle of Rivoli . The French triumph at Rivoli in January 1797 led to the collapse of the Austrian position in Italy. At Rivoli Austria lost 43% of its soldiers dead, wounded or taken prisoner. [ 43 ] [ 44 ] The French then invaded the heartlands of the House of Habsburg . French forces in southern Germany had been defeated by Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen in 1796, but Charles withdrew his forces to protect Vienna after learning of Bonaparte's assault. In their first encounter, Bonaparte pushed Charles back and advanced deep into Austrian territory after winning the Battle of Tarvis in March 1797. Alarmed by the French thrust that reached Leoben , about 100 km from Vienna, the Austrians sued for peace. [ 45 ] [ 46 ] The preliminary peace of Leoben , signed on 18 April, gave France control of most of northern Italy and the Low Countries and promised to partition the Republic of Venice with Austria. [ 47 ] Bonaparte marched on Venice and forced its surrender , ending 1,100 years of Venetian independence. He authorized the French to loot treasures such as the Horses of Saint Mark . [ 48 ] [ 49 ] Napoleon at the Battle of Rivoli by Henri Félix Emmanuel Philippoteaux , 1844 In this Italian campaign, Bonaparte's army captured 150,000 prisoners, 540 cannons, and 170 standards . The French army fought 67 actions and won 18 pitched battles through superior artillery technology and Bonaparte's tactics. [ 50 ] Bonaparte extracted an estimated 45 million French pounds from Italy during the campaign, another 12 million pounds in precious metals and jewels, and more than 300 paintings and sculptures. [ 51 ] During the campaign, Bonaparte became increasingly influential in French politics. He founded two newspapers: one for the troops in his army and one for circulation in France. [ 52 ] The royalists attacked him for looting Italy and warned that he might become a dictator. [ 53 ] Bonaparte sent General Charles-Pierre Augereau to Paris to support a coup d'état that purged royalists from the legislative councils on 4 September—the Coup of 18 Fructidor . This left Barras and his republican allies in control again, but more dependent upon Bonaparte, who finalized peace terms with Austria by the Treaty of Campo Formio . [ 54 ] Bonaparte returned to Paris on 5 December 1797 as a hero. [ 55 ] He met Charles Maurice de Talleyrand , France's foreign minister, and took command of the Army of England for the planned invasion of Britain. [ 56 ] Egyptian expedition Main article: French campaign in Egypt and Syria Bonaparte Before the Sphinx ( c.  1886 ) by Jean-Léon Gérôme , Hearst Castle After two months of planning, Bonaparte decided that France's naval strength was not yet sufficient to confront the Royal Navy . He decided on a military expedition to seize Egypt and thereby undermine Britain 's access to its trade interests in India . [ 1 ] Bonaparte wished to establish a French presence in the Middle East and join forces with Tipu Sultan , the Sultan of Mysore , an enemy of the British. [ 57 ] Bonaparte assured the Directory that "as soon as he had conquered Egypt, he will establish relations with the Indian princes and, together with them, attack the English in their possessions". [ 58 ] The Directory agreed in order to secure a trade route to the Indian subcontinent . [ 59 ] In May 1798, Bonaparte was elected a member of the French Academy of Sciences . His Egyptian expedition included a group of 167 scientists, with mathematicians, naturalists, chemists, and geodesists among them. Their discoveries included the Rosetta Stone , and their work was published in the Description de l'Égypte in 1809. [ 60 ] En route to Egypt, Bonaparte reached Hospitaller Malta on 9 June 1798, then controlled by the Knights Hospitaller . Grand Master Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim surrendered after token resistance, and Bonaparte captured an important naval base with the loss of only three men. [ 61 ] Battle of the Pyramids on 21 July 1798 by Louis-François, Baron Lejeune , 1808 Bonaparte and his expedition eluded pursuit by the Royal Navy and landed at Alexandria on 1 July. [ 1 ] He fought the Battle of Shubra Khit against the Mamluks , Egypt's ruling military caste. This helped the French practise their defensive tactic for the Battle of the Pyramids on 21 July, about 24 km (15 mi) from the pyramids . Bonaparte's forces of 25,000 roughly equalled those of the Mamluks' Egyptian cavalry. Twenty-nine French [ 62 ] and approximately 2,000 Egyptians were killed. The victory boosted the French army's morale. [ 63 ] On 1 August 1798 the British fleet under Sir Horatio Nelson captured or destroyed all but two vessels of the French fleet in the Battle of the Nile , preventing Bonaparte from strengthening the French position in the Mediterranean. [ 64 ] His army had succeeded in a temporary increase of French power in Egypt, though it faced repeated uprisings. [ 65 ] In early 1799 he moved an army into the Ottoman province of Damascus (Syria and Galilee ). Bonaparte led these 13,000 French soldiers in the conquest of the coastal towns of Arish , Gaza , Jaffa , and Haifa . [ 66 ] The attack on Jaffa was particularly brutal. Bonaparte discovered that many of the defenders were former prisoners of war, ostensibly on parole, so he ordered the garrison and some 1,500–5,000 prisoners to be executed by bayonet or drowning. [ 67 ] [ 68 ] [ 69 ] Men, women, and children were robbed and murdered for three days. [ 70 ] Bonaparte began with an army of 13,000 men. 1,500 were reported missing, 1,200 died in combat, and thousands perished from disease—mostly bubonic plague . He failed to reduce the fortress of Acre , so he marched his army back to Egypt in May. Bonaparte was alleged to have ordered plague-stricken men to be poisoned with opium to speed the retreat. [ 71 ] Back in Egypt on 25 July, Bonaparte defeated an Ottoman amphibious invasion at Abukir . [ 72 ] Bonaparte stayed informed of European affairs. He learned that France had suffered a series of defeats in the War of the Second Coalition . [ 73 ] On 24 August 1799, fearing that the Republic's future was in doubt, he took advantage of the temporary departure of British ships from French coastal ports and set sail for France, despite the fact that he had received no explicit orders from Paris. [ 74 ] The army was left in the charge of Jean-Baptiste Kléber . [ 75 ] ^ a b c Roberts (2001) , p.  xviii ^ Roberts (2014) , Chapter 1, pp. 3–28. ^ Zamoyski (2018) , pp. 36, 38. ^ Roberts (2014) , Chapter 2, pp. 29–53. ^ Zamoyski (2018) , pp. 41–46. ^ David Nicholls (1999). Napoleon: A Biographical Companion . ABC-CLIO. p.  131 . ISBN   978-0-87436-957-1 . ^ McLynn (1997) , pp. 52–54. ^ Zamoyski (2018) , pp. 52–53. ^ Dwyer (2008a) , pp. 106–22. ^ McLynn (1997) , pp. 58–63. ^ Dwyer (2008a) , p. 130. ^ Dwyer (2008a) , pp. 131–32. ^ Zamoyski (2018) , pp. 65–66. ^ Dwyer (2008a) , pp. 132–35. ^ Dwyer (2008a) , pp. 140–41. ^ Dwyer (2008a) , pp. 245–47. ^ Zamoyski (2018) , pp. 76–79. ^ Gueniffey (2015) , pp. 137–59. ^ Dwyer (2008a) , pp. 147–52. ^ Dwyer (2008a) , pp. 154–55. ^ Roberts (2014) , p. 55. ^ Zamoyski (2018) , pp. 79–80. ^ Dwyer (2008a) , pp. 155–57. ^ McLynn (1997) , pp. 76, 84. ^ Dwyer (2008a) , pp. 159–63. ^ McLynn (1997) , p. 92. ^ a b Dwyer (2008a) , p. 165–68 ^ McLynn (1997) , p. 93. ^ Dwyer (2008a) , p. 169. ^ Zamoyski (2018) , p. 92. ^ a b McLynn (1997) , p. 96 ^ Carlyle, Thomas (1837). The French Revolution, Vol. III (1891 ed.). London: Chapman and Hall. pp.  391– 97 . Retrieved 29 July 2025 . ^ Zamoyski (2018) , pp. 95–96. ^ Roberts (2014) , pp. 65–66. ^ Roberts (2014) , pp. 67–68. ^ Zamoyski (2018) , pp. 97, 103–04. ^ Knapton, Ernest John (1982) [1st pub. 1963]. "Chapter 2: Bird of the Islands" . Empress Josephine (3rd ed.). New York: Harvard University Press . pp.  15– 16, 18, 20, 22– 23. doi : 10.4159/harvard.9780674188761 . ISBN   978-0674252011 . OCLC   1740591 . ^ Englund (2010) , pp. 92–94. ^ Chandler (1966) , p. 3. ^ Dwyer (2008a) , p. xv. ^ Broers (2015) , p. 109. ^ Dwyer (2008a) , pp. 195, 204–06. ^ Bell (2015) , p. 29. ^ Dwyer (2008a) , pp. 245–50, 268–71. ^ Dwyer (2008a) , pp. 282–85. ^ Zamoyski (2018) , pp. 149–51. ^ Dwyer (2008a) , pp. 285–86, 291. ^ McLynn (1997) , p. 132. ^ Dwyer (2008a) , p. 296. ^ McLynn (1997) , p. 135. ^ Bell (2015) , p. 30. ^ Dwyer (2008a) , p. 306. ^ Dwyer (2008a) , pp. 304–05. ^ Dwyer (2008a) , pp. 311–16. ^ Dwyer (2008a) , p. 322. ^ Dwyer (2008a) , pp. 327, 333–35. ^ Cite error: The named reference Watson was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Amini (2000) , p. 12. ^ Dwyer (2008a) , p. 342. ^ Englund (2010) , pp. 127–28. ^ McLynn (1997) , p. 175. ^ McLynn (1997) , p. 179. ^ Dwyer (2008a) , p. 372. ^ Zamoyski (2018) , p. 188. ^ Dwyer (2008a) , p. 392. ^ Dwyer (2008a) , pp. 411–24. ^ Zamoyski (2018) , p. 198. ^ Bell (2015) , pp. 39–40. ^ McLynn (1997) , p. 280. ^ McLynn (1997) , p. 189. ^ Gueniffey (2015) , pp. 500–02. ^ Dwyer (2008a) , p. 442. ^ Connelly (2006) , p. 57. ^ Zamoyski (2018) , pp. 205–06. ^ Dwyer (2008a) , p. 444.

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Religion Further information: Napoleon and the Catholic Church Reorganisation of the religious geography: France is divided into 59 dioceses and 10 ecclesiastical provinces . Religious beliefs Napoleon was baptized in Ajaccio on 21 July 1771 and raised a Roman Catholic. He began to question his faith at age 13 while at Brienne. [ 1 ] Biographers have variously described him from that time as a deist , a follower of Jean-Jacques Rousseau 's "natural religion" or a believer in destiny. He consistently expressed his belief in a God or creator. [ 2 ] He understood the power of organized religion in social and political affairs and later sought to use it to support his regime. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] His attitude to religion is often described as utilitarian. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] In 1800 he stated, "it was by making myself a Catholic that I won the war in the Vendée, by making myself a Moslem that I established myself in Egypt, by making myself an ultramontane that I turned men's hearts towards me in Italy. If I were to govern a nation of Jews I would rebuild the Temple of Solomon ." [ 5 ] Napoleon had a civil marriage with Joséphine in 1796 and, at the pope's insistence, a private religious ceremony with her the day before his coronation as emperor in 1804. This marriage was annulled by tribunals under Napoleon's control in January 1810. [ 7 ] In April 1810, Napoleon married Austrian princess Marie Louise in a Catholic ceremony. Napoleon was excommunicated by the pope through the bull Quum memoranda in 1809. [ 8 ] His will in 1821 stated, "I die in the Apostolical Roman religion, in the bosom of which I was born, more than fifty years since." [ 9 ] Napoleon read the Quran in translation and had an interest in Islam and the Orient . [ 10 ] He also defended Muhammad ("a great man") against Voltaire 's Mahomet . [ 11 ] Concordat Leaders of the Catholic Church taking the civil oath required by the Concordat of 1801 Seeking national reconciliation between revolutionaries and Catholics, Napoleon and Pope Pius VII agreed to the Concordat of 1801 . The agreement recognized the Catholic Church as the majority church of France and in return the Church recognized Napoleon's regime, undercutting much of the ground from royalists. The Concordat confirmed the seizure of Church lands and endowments during the revolution, but reintroduced state salaries for the clergy. The government also controlled the nomination of bishops for investiture by the pope. Bishops and other clergy were required to swear an oath of loyalty to the regime. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] [ 14 ] When the Concordat was published on 8 April 1802, Napoleon presented another set of laws called the Organic Articles which further increased state control over the French Church. [ 12 ] Similar arrangements were made with the Church in territories controlled by Napoleon, especially in Italy and Germany. [ 15 ] Arrest of Pope Pius VII Napoleon progressively occupied and annexed the Papal States from 1805. When he annexed Rome in May 1809, the pope excommunicated him the following month. In July, French officials arrested the pope in the Vatican and exiled him to Savona . In 1812 the pontiff was transferred to the Palace of Fontainebleau in France. [ 16 ] In January 1813, Napoleon pressured the pope to sign a new "Concordat of Fontainebleau" which was soon repudiated by the pontiff. The pope was not released until 1814. [ 8 ] Religious emancipation Further information: Napoleon and the Jews and Napoleon and Protestants In February 1795, the National Convention proclaimed religious equality for France's Protestant churches and other religions. In April 1802, Napoleon published laws increasing state control of Calvinist congregations and Lutheran directories, with their pastors to be paid by the state. [ 17 ] With Napoleon's military victories, formal religious equality and civil rights for religious minorities spread to the conquered territories and satellite states , although their implementation varied with the local authorities. [ 18 ] Jews in France had been granted full civil rights in September 1791 and religious equality in 1795. The revolutionary and Napoleonic regimes abolished Jewish ghettoes in the territories they conquered. [ 19 ] Napoleon wished to assimilate Jews into French society and convened an assembly of Jewish notables in 1806 to that end. In 1807, he summoned a Sanhedrin to adapt the law of Moses to those of the empire. An imperial decree of March 1808 organized Jewish worship into consistories, limited usury and encouraged Jews to adopt a family name, intermarriage, and civil marriage and divorce. [ 20 ] [ 19 ] Jews, however, were still subject to discrimination in many parts of the empire and satellite states. [ 18 ] ^ Ellis (1997a) , pp. 239–41. ^ Ellis (1997a) , p. 236. ^ "L'Empire et le Saint-Siège" . Napoleon.org. Archived from the original on 19 September 2011. ^ Ellis (1997a) , pp. 236–37. ^ a b Ellis (1997a) , p. 235. ^ Dwyer (2013) , p. 84. ^ "Napoleon's 'divorce' " . Napoleon.org . Archived from the original on 21 January 2018. ^ a b Ellis (1997a) , p. 248. ^ Conner (2004) , p. 197. ^ Youssef, Ahmed (January 2023). "Napoléon et l'islam, l'anti-croisade" . Napoleon.org (in French). Archived from the original on 2 December 2023. ^ Cases, Emmanuel-Auguste-Dieudonné comte de Las Cases (1855). Memoirs of the Life, Exile, and Conversations of the Emperor Napoleon . Vol. 2. Redfield. p. 94. ^ a b Ellis (1997a) , pp. 244–45. ^ Roberts, William (1999). "Napoleon, the Concordat of 1801, and Its Consequences". In Coppa, Frank J. (ed.). Controversial Concordats: The Vatican's Relations with Napoleon, Mussolini, and Hitler . Catholic University of America Press. pp.  34– 38. ISBN   978-0-8132-2038-3 . ^ Aston, Nigel (2000). Religion and revolution in France, 1780–1804 . Catholic University of America Press . pp.  279– 315. ISBN   978-0-8132-0976-0 . ^ Aston, Nigel (2002). Christianity and Revolutionary Europe, 1750–1830 . Cambridge University Press. pp.  261– 262. ISBN   978-0-521-46592-2 . Archived from the original on 2 December 2023 . Retrieved 2 December 2023 . ^ "Napoleon and the Pope: From the Concordat to the Excommunication" . Archived from the original on 24 January 2018 . Retrieved 23 January 2018 . ^ Ellis (1997a) , pp. 242, 245. ^ a b McLynn (1997) , pp. 435–36 ^ a b Palmer (1984) , pp. 160–61. ^ Conner (2004) , pp. 38–40.

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