Inca Empire

History Main article: History of the Incas Antecedents Stela in Tiwanaku's Kalasasaya temple The Inca Empire was the last chapter of thousands of years of Andean civilizations . The Andean civilization is one of at least five civilizations in the world deemed by scholars to be "pristine". The concept of a pristine civilization refers to a civilization that has developed independently of external influences and is not a derivative of other civilizations. [ 1 ] The Inca Empire was preceded by two large-scale empires in the Andes: the Tiwanaku ( c.  300 –1100 AD), based around Lake Titicaca , and the Wari or Huari ( c.  600 –1100 AD), centered near the city of Ayacucho . The Wari occupied the Cuzco area for about 400 years. Thus, many of the characteristics of the Inca Empire derived from earlier multi-ethnic and expansive Andean cultures. [ 2 ] To those earlier civilizations may be owed some of the accomplishments cited for the Inca Empire: "thousands of kilometres/miles of roads and dozens of large administrative centers with elaborate stone construction... terraced mountainsides and filled in valleys", and the production of "vast quantities of goods". [ 3 ] Carl Troll has argued that the development of the Inca state in the central Andes was aided by conditions that allow for the elaboration of the staple food chuño . Chuño, which can be stored for long periods, is made of potato dried at the freezing temperatures that are common at nighttime in the southern Andean highlands. Such a link between the Inca state and chuño has been questioned, as other crops such as maize can also be dried with only sunlight. [ 4 ] Troll also argued that llamas , the Incas' pack animal, can be found in their largest numbers in this very same region. [ 4 ] The maximum extent of the Inca Empire roughly coincided with the distribution of llamas and alpacas , the only large domesticated animals in Pre-Hispanic America . [ 5 ] As a third point Troll pointed out irrigation technology as advantageous to Inca state-building. [ 6 ] While Troll theorized concerning environmental influences on the Inca Empire, he opposed environmental determinism , arguing that culture lay at the core of the Inca civilization. [ 6 ] Origin The Inca people were a pastoral tribe in the Cusco area around the 12th century. Indigenous Andean oral history tells two main origin stories: the legends of Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo, and that of the Ayar brothers. The Legend of the Ayar Brothers Manco Capac , First Inca, 1 of 14 Portraits of Inca Kings, Probably mid-18th century. Oil on canvas. Brooklyn Museum Manco Cápac and Mama Ocllo , children of the Inti , Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala , El primer nueva corónica y buen gobierno , circa 1615 The center cave at Tambo Tocco (Tampu T'uqu) was named Capac Tocco (Qhapaq T'uqu, "principal niche"). The other caves were Maras Tocco (Maras T'uqu) and Sutic Tocco (Sutiq T'uqu). [ 7 ] Four brothers and four sisters stepped out of the middle cave. They were: Ayar Manco (Ayar Manqu), Ayar Cachi (Ayar Kachi), Ayar Auca (Ayar Awka) and Ayar Uchu (Ayar Uchi); and Mama Ocllo (Mama Uqllu), Mama Raua (Mama Rawa), Mama Huaco (Mama Waqu) and Mama Coea (Mama Qura). Out of the side caves came the people who were to be the ancestors of all the Inca clans. Ayar Manco carried a magic staff made of the finest gold. Where this staff landed, the people would live. They traveled for a long time. On the way, Ayar Cachi boasted about his strength and power. His siblings tricked him into returning to the cave to get a sacred llama . When he went into the cave, they trapped him inside to get rid of him. Ayar Uchu decided to stay on the top of the cave to look over the Inca people. The minute he proclaimed that, he turned to stone. They built a shrine around the stone and it became a sacred object. Ayar Auca grew tired of all this and decided to travel alone. Only Ayar Manco and his four sisters remained. Finally, they reached Cusco. The staff sank into the ground. Before they arrived, Mama Ocllo had already borne Ayar Manco a child, Sinchi Roca . The people who were already living in Cusco fought hard to keep their land, but Mama Huaca was a good fighter. When the enemy attacked, she threw her bolas (several stones tied together that spun through the air when thrown) at a soldier (gualla) and killed him instantly. The other people became afraid and ran away. After that, Ayar Manco became known as Manco Cápac , the founder of the Inca. It is said that he and his sisters built the first Inca homes in the valley with their own hands. When the time came, Manco Capac turned to stone like his brothers before him. His son, Sinchi Roca, became the second emperor of the Inca. [ 8 ] The Legend of Manco Cápac and Mama Ocllo Legend collected by the mestizo chronicler Inca Garcilaso de la Vega in his work Los Comentarios Reales de los Incas ( transl.  The Royal Commentaries of the Inca ). It narrates the adventure of a couple, Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo , who were sent by the Sun God and emerged from the depths of Lake Titicaca ( pacarina ~ paqarina "sacred place of origin") and marched north. They carried a golden staff, given by the Sun God ; the message was clear: in the place where the golden staff sank, they would establish a city and settle there. The staff sank at Mount Guanacaure in the Acamama Valley; therefore, the couple decided to remain there and informed the inhabitants of the area that they were sent by the Sun God . They then proceeded to teach them agriculture and weaving. Thus, the Inca civilization began. [ 9 ] [ 10 ] Kingdom of Cuzco Main article: Kingdom of Cusco The Inca Empire's expansion according to John Howland Rowe in his "absolute chronology", developed in 1944–1945. In the early 1200s, under the leadership of Manco Capac, the Inca formed the small city-state Kingdom of Cuzco (Quechua Qusqu ). There Manco Capac built a temple to the Sun God, called Inticancha, in the current location of Coricancha . Over the successive Inca rulers, they expanded their influence beyond Cusco and into the Sacred Valley through a series of battles, marriages, and alliances. In 1438, they began a far-reaching expansion under the command of the 9th Sapa Inca ("paramount leader"), Pachacuti Cusi Yupanqui (Pachakutiy Kusi Yupanki), whose epithet Pachacuti means "the turn of the world". [ 11 ] The name of Pachacuti was given to him after he conquered the tribe of the Chancas during the Chanka–Inca War (in modern-day Apurímac ). During his reign, he and his son Topa Yupanqui (Tupa Yupanki) brought much of the modern-day territory of Peru under Inca control. [ 12 ] Reorganisation and formation Pachacuti reorganised the kingdom of Cusco into the Tahuantinsuyu, which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provincial governments with strong leaders: Chinchaysuyu (NW), Antisuyu (NE), Kuntisuyu (SW), and Qullasuyu (SE). [ a ] Pachacuti is thought to have built Machu Picchu , either as a family home or summer retreat, although it may have been an agricultural station. [ 13 ] Pachacuti sent spies to regions he wanted in his empire and they brought to him reports on political organization, military strength and wealth. He then sent messages to their leaders extolling the benefits of joining his empire, offering them presents of luxury goods such as high quality textiles and promising that they would be materially richer as his subjects. Most accepted the rule of the Inca as a fait accompli and acquiesced peacefully. Refusal to accept Inca rule resulted in military conquest. Following conquest the local rulers were executed. The ruler's children were brought to Cuzco to learn about Inca administration systems, then return to rule their native lands. This allowed the Inca to indoctrinate them into the Inca nobility and, with luck, marry their daughters into families at various corners of the empire. Expansion and consolidation Main articles: Colla–Inca War , Chimor–Inca War , and List of wars involving the Inca Empire Pachacuti had named his favorite son, Amaru Yupanqui, as his co-ruler and successor. [ 14 ] However, as co-ruler Amaru showed little interest in military affairs. Due to this lack of military talent, he faced much opposition from the Inca nobility, who began to plot against him. [ 15 ] Despite this, Pachacuti decided to take a blind eye to his son's lack of capability. Following a revolt during which Amaru almost led the Inca forces to defeat, the Sapa Inca decided to replace the co-ruler with another one of his sons, Topa Inca Yupanqui . [ 16 ] Túpac Inca Yupanqui began conquests to the north in 1463 and continued them as Inca ruler after Pachacuti's death in 1471. Túpac Inca's most important conquest was the Kingdom of Chimor , the Inca's only serious rival for the coast. Túpac Inca's empire then stretched north into what are today Ecuador and Colombia. Topa Inca's son Huayna Capac added a small portion of land to the north in what is today Ecuador. At its height, the Inca Empire included modern-day Peru, what are today western and south central Bolivia, southwest Ecuador and Colombia and a large portion of modern-day Chile, at the north of the Maule River . Traditional historiography claims the advance south halted after the Battle of the Maule where they met determined resistance from the Mapuche . [ 17 ] This view is challenged by historian Osvaldo Silva who argues instead that it was the social and political framework of the Mapuche that posed the main difficulty in imposing imperial rule. [ 17 ] Silva does accept that the battle of the Maule was a stalemate, but argues the Incas lacked the incentives for conquest they had when fighting more complex societies such as the Chimú Empire . [ 17 ] Silva also disputes the date given by traditional historiography for the battle: the late 15th century during the reign of Topa Inca Yupanqui (1471–1493). [ 17 ] Instead, he places it in 1532 during the Inca Civil War . [ 17 ] Nevertheless, Silva agrees on the claim that the bulk of the Inca conquests were made during the late 15th century. [ 17 ] At the time of the Inca Civil War an Inca army was, according to Diego de Rosales , subduing a revolt among the Diaguitas of Copiapó and Coquimbo . [ 17 ] The empire's push into the Amazon Basin near the Chinchipe River was stopped by the Shuar in 1527. [ 18 ] The empire extended into corners of what are today the north of Argentina and part of the southern Colombia. However, most of the southern portion of the Inca empire, the portion denominated as Qullasuyu, was located in the Altiplano . The Inca Empire was an amalgamation of languages, cultures and peoples. The components of the empire were not all uniformly loyal, nor were the local cultures all fully integrated. The Inca empire as a whole had an economy based on exchange and taxation of luxury goods and labour. The following quote describes a method of taxation: For as is well known to all, not a single village of the highlands or the plains failed to pay the tribute levied on it by those who were in charge of these matters. There were even provinces where, when the natives alleged that they were unable to pay their tribute, the Inca ordered that each inhabitant should be obliged to turn in every four months a large quill full of live lice, which was the Inca's way of teaching and accustoming them to pay tribute. [ 19 ] First contact Aleixo Garcia (died 1525) was a Portuguese explorer and conquistador . He was a castaway who lived in Brazil and explored Paraguay and Bolivia. On a raiding expedition with a Guaraní army, Garcia and a few colleagues were the first Europeans known to have come into contact with the Inca Empire. [ 20 ] Inca Civil War and Spanish conquest Main articles: Inca Civil War and Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire The first image of the Inca in Europe, Pedro Cieza de León , Crónica del Perú , 1553 Capaccona or Qhapaqkuna "the kings", a 17th-century Cusco painting with the Inca lineages mentioned by colonial chronicles and their relationship with the royal queens of Cuzco, which hide behind a complex representation of the Inca social organization. Spanish conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro and his brothers explored south from what is today Panama , reaching Inca territory by 1526. [ 21 ] It was clear that they had reached a wealthy land with prospects of great treasure, and after another expedition in 1529 Pizarro traveled to Spain and received royal approval to conquer the region and be its viceroy . This approval was received as detailed in the following quote: "In July 1529 the Queen of Spain signed a charter allowing Pizarro to conquer the Incas. Pizarro was named governor and captain of all conquests in Peru, or New Castile, as the Spanish now called the land". [ 22 ] When the conquistadors returned to Peru in 1532, a war of succession between the sons of Sapa Inca Huayna Capac, Huáscar and Atahualpa , and unrest among newly conquered territories weakened the empire. Perhaps more importantly smallpox , influenza , typhus , and measles had potentially spread from Central America. The first epidemic of European disease in the Inca Empire possibly happened in the 1520s, killing Huayna Capac, his designated heir Ninan Cuyochi , and an unknown, probably large, number of other Inca subjects. [ 23 ] This claim has been disputed, with the earliest written accounts of Huayan Capac's death not fully agreeing on the cause, early chroniclers like Francisco de Xerez having simply describing it as "that disease". [ 24 ] The forces led by Pizarro consisted of 168 men, along with one cannon and 27 horses . The conquistadors were armed with lances , arquebuses , steel armor , and long swords . In contrast, the Inca used weapons made out of wood, stone, copper and bronze, while using an Alpaca fiber based armor, putting them at significant technological disadvantage – none of their weapons could pierce the Spanish steel armor. In addition, due to the absence of horses in Peru, the Inca did not develop tactics to fight cavalry. However, the Inca were still effective warriors, being able to successfully fight the Mapuche , who later would strategically defeat and reverse Spanish colonisation in southern Chile . The first engagement between the Inca and the Spanish was the Battle of Puná , near present-day Guayaquil , Ecuador, on the Pacific Coast; Pizarro then founded the city of Piura in July 1532. Hernando de Soto was sent inland to explore the interior and returned with an invitation to meet the Inca, Atahualpa, who had defeated his brother in the civil war and was resting at Cajamarca with his army of 80,000 troops, that were at the moment armed only with hunting tools (knives and lassos for hunting llamas). Pizarro and some of his men, most notably a friar named Vincente de Valverde , met with the Inca, who had brought only a small retinue. The Inca offered them ceremonial chicha in a golden cup, which the Spanish rejected. The Spanish interpreter, Friar Vincente, read the " Requerimiento " that demanded that he and his empire accept the rule of King Charles I of Spain and convert to Christianity. Atahualpa dismissed the message and asked them to leave. After this, the Spaniards began their attack against the mostly unarmed Inca, captured Atahualpa as hostage, and forced the Inca to collaborate. Atahualpa offered the Spaniards enough gold to fill the room he was imprisoned in and twice that amount of silver. The Inca fulfilled this ransom, but Pizarro deceived them, refusing to release the Inca afterwards. During Atahualpa's imprisonment, Huascar was assassinated elsewhere. The Spaniards maintained that this was at Atahualpa's orders; this was used as one of the charges against Atahualpa when the Spaniards finally executed him in August 1533. [ 25 ] Although "defeat" often implies an unwanted loss in battle, many of the diverse ethnic groups ruled by the Inca "welcomed the Spanish invaders as liberators and willingly settled down with them to share rule of Andean farmers and miners". [ 26 ] Many regional leaders, known as kurakas , continued to serve the Spanish overlords, called encomenderos , as they had served the Inca overlords. Other than efforts to spread the religion of Christianity , the Spanish benefited from and made little effort to change the society and culture of the former Inca Empire until the rule of Francisco de Toledo as viceroy from 1569 to 1581. [ 27 ] End of the Inca Empire Main articles: Neo-Inca State and Society in the Spanish Colonial Americas Atahualpa, the last Sapa Inca of the empire, was executed by the Spanish on 29 August 1533. Painting by Luis Montero . Facade of the Church and Convent of Santo Domingo in Cusco , built on the base of the Coricancha The Spaniards installed Atahualpa's brother Manco Inca Yupanqui in power; for some time Manco cooperated with the Spaniards while they fought to put down resistance in the north. Meanwhile, an associate of Pizarro, Diego de Almagro , attempted to claim Cusco. Manco tried to use this intra-Spanish feud to his advantage, recapturing Cusco in 1536, but the Spaniards retook the city afterwards. Manco Inca then retreated to the mountains of Vilcabamba and established the small Neo-Inca State , where he and his successors ruled for another 36 years, sometimes raiding the Spanish or inciting revolts against them. In 1572 the last Inca stronghold was conquered and the last ruler, Topa Amaru , Manco's son, was captured and executed. [ 28 ] This ended resistance to the Spanish conquest under the political authority of the Inca state. After the fall of the Inca Empire many aspects of Inca culture were systematically destroyed, including their sophisticated farming system, known as the vertical archipelago model of agriculture. [ 29 ] Spanish colonial officials used the Inca mita corvée labor system for colonial aims, sometimes brutally. One member of each family was forced to work in the gold and silver mines, the foremost of which was the titanic silver mine at Potosí . When a family member died, which would usually happen within a year or two, the family was required to send a replacement. [ 30 ] Although smallpox is usually presumed to have spread through the Empire before the arrival of the Spaniards, the devastation is also consistent with other theories. [ 31 ] Beginning in Colombia, smallpox spread rapidly before the Spanish invaders first arrived in the empire. The spread was probably aided by the efficient Inca road system. Smallpox was only the first epidemic. [ 32 ] Other diseases, including a probable typhus outbreak in 1546, influenza and smallpox together in 1558, smallpox again in 1589, diphtheria in 1614, and measles in 1618, all ravaged the Inca people. There would be periodic attempts by indigenous leaders to expel the Spanish colonists and re-create the Inca Empire until the late 18th century. See Juan Santos Atahualpa and Túpac Amaru II . ^ Upton, Gary and von Hagen, Adriana (2015), Encyclopedia of the Incas , New York, Rowman & Littlefield , p. 2. Some scholars cite 6 or 7 pristine civilisations ISBN   0-8047-1516-5 . ^ McEwan, Gordon F.; (2006), The Incas: New Perspectives Archived 11 December 2022 at the Wayback Machine , New York, W. W. Norton & Company , p. 65 ^ Spalding, Karen (1984), Huarocochí , Stanford University Press , page 77 ^ a b Gade, Daniel (2016). "Urubamba Verticality: Reflections on Crops and Diseases" . Spell of the Urubamba: Anthropogeographical Essays on an Andean Valley in Space and Time . Springer. p. 86. ISBN   978-3-319-20849-7 . ^ Hardoy, Jorge Henríque (1973). Pre-Columbian Cities . Routledge . p. 24. ISBN   978-0-8027-0380-4 . ^ a b Gade, Daniel W. (1996). "Carl Troll on Nature and Culture in the Andes (Carl Troll über die Natur und Kultur in den Anden)" . Erdkunde . 50 (4): 301– 316. doi : 10.3112/erdkunde.1996.04.02 . ^ McEwan 2008 , p. 57. ^ McEwan 2008 , p. 69. ^ Vega, Garcilaso de la (1966). Royal Commentaries of the Incas, and General History of Peru . University of Texas Press . ISBN   978-0-608-08701-6 . ^ "The Great Inka Road: Engineering an Empire - Creation Stories" . americanindian.si.edu . Retrieved 21 July 2024 . ^ Cerrón-Palomino, Rodolfo (2008). Voces del Ande: ensayos sobre onomástica andina [ Words of the Andes: essays on Andean onomastics ] (in Spanish). Fondo Editorial de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú . p. 298. doi : 10.18800/9789972428562 . ISBN   978-9972-42-856-2 . ^ Demarest, Arthur Andrew; Conrad, Geoffrey W. (1984). Religion and Empire: The Dynamics of Aztec and Inca Expansionism . Cambridge University Press . pp.  57– 59. ISBN   0-521-31896-3 . ^ Weatherford, J. McIver (1988). Indian Givers: How the Indians of the Americas Transformed the World . Fawcett Columbine. pp.  60– 62. ISBN   0-449-90496-2 . ^ de Gamboa, Pedro Sarmiento. Historia de los Incas . ^ José Antonio, del Busto Duthurburu. Une cronología aproximada del Tahuantinsuyu . p. 18. ^ Rostworowski, María (2008). Le Grand Inca Pachacútec Inca Yupanqui . Tallandier. ISBN   978-2-84734-462-2 . ^ a b c d e f g Silva Galdames, Osvaldo (1983). "¿Detuvo la batalla del Maule la expansión inca hacia el sur de Chile?" . Cuadernos de Historia (in Spanish). 3 : 7– 25 . Retrieved 10 January 2019 . ^ Ernesto Salazar (1977). An Indian federation in lowland Ecuador (PDF) . International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs . p. 13 . Retrieved 16 February 2013 . ^ Starn, Orin; Kirk, Carlos Iván; Degregori, Carlos Iván (2009). The Peru Reader: History, Culture, Politics . Duke University Press . ISBN   978-0-8223-8750-3 . ^ Nowell, Charles E. (1946). "Aleixo Garcia and the White King" . The Hispanic American Historical Review . 26 (4): 450– 466. doi : 10.2307/2507650 . ISSN   0018-2168 . ^ * Juan de Samano (9 October 2009). "Relacion de los primeros descubrimientos de Francisco Pizarro y Diego de Almagro, 1526" . bloknot.info . Archived from the original on 21 July 2011 . Retrieved 10 October 2009 . ^ Somervill, Barbara (2005). Francisco Pizarro: Conqueror of the Incas . Compass Point Books . p. 52. ISBN   978-0-7565-1061-9 . ^ D'Altroy, Terence N. (2003). The Incas . Blackwell Publishing . p. 76. ISBN   978-0-631-17677-0 . ^ "Why Blame Smallpox? The Death of the Inca Huayna Capac and the Demographic Destruction of Ancient Peru (Tawantinsuyu)" . users.pop.umn.edu . Retrieved 28 September 2025 . ^ McEwan 2008 , p. 79. ^ Raudzens, George, ed. (2003). Technology, Disease, and Colonial Conquest . Brill Publishers . p. xiv. ^ Mumford, Jeremy Ravi (2012), Vertical Empire, Duke University Press , Durham, pages 19–30, 56–57, ISBN 9780822353102. ^ McEwan 2008 , p. 31. ^ Sanderson 1992 , p. 76. ^ Wiedner, Donald L. (April 1960). "Forced Labor in Colonial Peru" . The Americas . 16 (4): 357– 383. doi : 10.2307/978993 . ISSN   0003-1615 . JSTOR   978993 . S2CID   147198034 . ^ Sandweiss, Daniel H.; Quilter, Jeffrey (31 January 2009). El Niño, Catastrophism, and Culture Change in Ancient America . Dumbarton Oaks Other Titles in Pre-Columbian Studies. Harvard University Press . ISBN   978-0-88402-353-1 . Retrieved 7 August 2022 . ^ Millersville University Silent Killers of the New World Archived 3 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). Read more on Wikipedia →

Religion Main articles: Religion in the Inca Empire and Inca mythology Diorite Viracocha Inca sculpture from Amarucancha archeological site, Cusco Inca myths were transmitted orally until early Spanish colonists recorded them; however, some scholars claim that they were recorded on quipus , Andean knotted string records. [ 1 ] The Inca believed in reincarnation . [ 2 ] [ better source needed ] After death, the passage to the next world was fraught with difficulties. The spirit of the dead, camaquen, would need to follow a long road and during the trip the assistance of a black dog that could see in the dark was required. Most Incas imagined the after world to be like an earthly paradise with flower-covered fields and snow-capped mountains. It was important to the Inca that they not die as a result of burning or that the body of the deceased not be incinerated. Burning would cause their vital force to disappear and threaten their passage to the after world. The Inca nobility practiced cranial deformation . [ 3 ] They wrapped tight cloth straps around the heads of newborns to shape their soft skulls into a more conical form, thus distinguishing the nobility from other social classes. The Incas made human sacrifices . As many as 4,000 servants, court officials, favorites and concubines were killed upon the death of the Inca Huayna Capac in 1527. [ 4 ] The Incas performed child sacrifices around important events, such as the death of the Sapa Inca or during a famine [ 5 ] . These sacrifices were known as capacocha or qhapaq hucha . [ 6 ] The Incas were polytheists who worshipped many gods. These included: Viracocha ( Wiraqucha ) (also Pachacamac or Pacha Kamaq ) – Created all living things Apu Illapu – Rain god, prayed to when they need rain Ayar Cachi – Hot-tempered god, causes earthquakes Illapa – Goddess of lightning and thunder (also Yakumama, goddess of water) Inti – Sun god and patron deity of the holy city of Cusco (home of the sun) Kuychi – Rainbow god, connected with fertility Mama Killa – Means "Mother Moon", wife of Inti Mama Ocllo ( Mama Uqllu ) – Created wisdom to civilize the people, taught women to weave cloth and build houses Manco Capac ( Manqu Qhapaq ) – Known for his courage and sent to Earth to become first king of the Incas. Taught people how to grow plants, make weapons, work together, share resources and worship the other gods Pachamama – Goddess of earth. People give her offerings of coca leaves and beer and pray to her for major agricultural occasions Quchamama – meaning "lake mother", represents the goddess of the sea Sachamama – meaning "tree mother", represented as a snake with two heads Yakumama – meaning "water mother", represented as a snake, transformed into a great river (also Illapa) when she came to Earth. According to Inca mythology , there were three different worlds created by Viracocha: [ 7 ] Hanan Pacha (upper world, celestial or supraterrestrial): Reserved for the righteous, it was inhabited by gods and accessible only through a bridge of hair. It was symbolized by the condor Kay Pacha (world of the present and here): The earthly world where humans live, represented by the puma . Uku Pacha (world below or world of the dead): Involving the dead and everything below the earth's surface, it was ruled by Supay and symbolized by the serpent . ^ Urton, Gary (2009). Signs of the Inka Khipu: Binary Coding in the Andean Knotted-String Records . University of Texas Press . ISBN   978-0-292-77375-2 . ^ "The Incas of Peru" . Archived from the original on 4 November 2016 . Retrieved 15 October 2007 . ^ Burger, Richard L.; Salazar, Lucy C. (2004). Machu Picchu: Unveiling the Mystery of the Incas . Yale University Press . ISBN   978-0-300-09763-4 . ^ Davies, Nigel (1981). Human sacrifice: in history and today . Morrow. pp.  261– 262. ISBN   978-0-688-03755-0 . ^ Heaney, Christopher (2023). "Curing Incas: Andean Lifeways and the Pre-Hispanic Imperial Dead". Empires of the Dead: Inca Mummies and the Peruvian Ancestors of American Anthropology . New York: Oxford University Press. pp.  13– 30. doi : 10.1093/oso/9780197542552.003.0002 . ISBN   978-0-19-754255-2 . ^ Reinhard, Johan (November 1999). "A 6,700 metros niños incas sacrificados quedaron congelados en el tiempo". National Geographic, Spanish version : 36– 55. ^ Heydt-Coca, Magda von der (1999). "When Worlds Collide: The Incorporation Of The Andean World Into The Emerging World-Economy In The Colonial Period". Dialectical Anthropology . 24 (1): 1– 43. doi : 10.1023/A:1006918114083 . Read more on Wikipedia →

Economy Main articles: Economy of the Inca Empire , Inca agriculture , Vertical archipelago , Mit'a , and Qullqa Illustration of Inca farmers using a chaki taklla (Andean foot plough) in El primer nueva corónica y buen gobierno (ca. 1615) by Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala . The Inca Empire employed central planning . Coastal chiefdoms within the Inca Empire punctually traded with outside regions, although they did not operate a substantial internal market economy . While axe-monies were used along the northern coast, where the custom of reciprocity was not in place, [ 1 ] presumably by the provincial mindaláe trading class, [ 2 ] most households in the empire lived in a traditional economy in which households were required to pay tributes, usually in the form of the mit'a corvée labor, and military obligations, [ 3 ] though barter (or trueque ) was present in some areas. [ 4 ] In return, the state provided security, food in times of hardship through the supply of emergency resources, agricultural projects (e.g. aqueducts and terraces) to increase productivity and occasional feasts hosted by Inca officials for their subjects. While mit'a was used by the state to obtain labor, individual villages had a pre-Inca system of communal work known as mink'a . This system survives to the modern day, known as mink'a or faena . The economy rested on the material foundations of the vertical archipelago , a system of ecological complementarity in accessing resources [ 5 ] and the cultural foundation of ayni , or reciprocal exchange . [ 6 ] [ 7 ] Agriculture Andenes in the Sacred Valley of the Incas, near Pisac , Cuzco. It was the main economic activity in the Tawantinsuyu, followed by livestock raising. It was a mixed economy with agrarian technology based on ancestral knowledge such as the andenes (terraces), wachaque (sunken fields), waru waru (raised fields), qucha (artificial lakes); and the improvement of cultivation tools, like the chaquitaclla and the raucana . [ 8 ] The potato was the staple food with over 200 species and 5000 different varieties while corn and coca were considered sacred plants. [ 9 ] They also built agrobiological experimentation centers such as Moray (Cuzco), Castrovirreyna (Huancavelica) and Carania (Yauyos), through circular terraces where the products of the entire empire were reproduced. [ 8 ] Animal husbandry Main article: Inca animal husbandry Camelids were a vital resource in Tahuantinsuyo. The Inca state ensured a supply of both meat and fiber from these animals. In pre-Hispanic Andes , camelids played a crucial role in the economy. The domesticated species, llama and alpaca , were raised in large herds and used for various purposes within the Inca production system. [ 10 ] Additionally, two wild camelid species, vicuña and guanaco , were also utilized. Vicuñas were hunted through collective drives (chacos), sheared with tools like stones, knives, and metal axes, and then released to maintain their population. Guanacos were hunted for their highly valued meat. Chronicles indicate that all camelid meat was consumed, but due to restrictions on slaughter, its consumption was likely considered a luxury. Fresh meat was probably accessible mainly to the military or during ceremonial occasions involving widespread distribution of sacrificed animals. During the colonial period, pastures diminished or degraded due to the massive presence of introduced Spanish animals and their feeding habits, significantly altering the Andean environment. [ 11 ] ^ Rostworowski, María (1999). History of the Inca Realm . Translated by B. Iceland, Harry. Cambridge University Press . ^ Salomon, Frank (1 January 1987). "A North Andean Status Trader Complex under Inka Rule". Ethnohistory . 34 (1): 63– 77. doi : 10.2307/482266 . JSTOR   482266 . ^ Earls, J. The Character of Inca and Andean Agriculture. pp. 1–29 ^ Moseley 2001 , p. 44. ^ Murra, John V.; Rowe, John Howland (1 January 1984). "An Interview with John V. Murra". The Hispanic American Historical Review . 64 (4): 633– 653. doi : 10.2307/2514748 . JSTOR   2514748 . S2CID   222285111 . ^ Maffie, James (4 December 2009). "Pre-Columbian Philosophies". In Nuccetelli, Susana; Schutte, Ofelia; Bueno, Otávio (eds.). A Companion to Latin American Philosophy (1 ed.). Wiley. doi : 10.1002/9781444314847 . ISBN   978-1-4051-7979-9 . ^ Newitz, Annalee (3 January 2012), The greatest mystery of the Inca Empire was its strange economy , io9 , archived from the original on 10 December 2015 , retrieved 4 January 2012 ^ a b Hernández, Francisco (2012). Los Incas y el poder de sus ancestros . Fondo Editorial de la PUCP. ^ Graves, C., ed. (2000). La papa: tesoro de los andes: de la agricultura a la cultura (PDF) . International Potato Center. ^ Marín, Juan (2007). "Sistemática, taxonomía y domesticación de alpacas y llamas: nueva evidencia cromosómica y molecular" . Revista Chilena de Historia Natural (in Spanish). 80 (2): 121– 140. doi : 10.4067/S0716-078X2007000200001 . hdl : 10533/178784 . ^ Rostworowski, María (1995). Historia del Tahuantinsuyo (in Spanish). Instituto de Estudios Peruanos. Archived from the original on 2 February 2009. Read more on Wikipedia →

Government Main article: Government of the Inca Empire Beliefs Inti , as represented by José Bernardo de Tagle of Peru The Sapa Inca, the head of upper Cusco, [ 1 ] was conceptualized as divine and was effectively head of the state religion. The Willaq Umu (or Chief Priest), the head of lower Cusco, [ 1 ] was second to the emperor. Local religious traditions continued and in some cases such as the Oracle at Pachacamac on the coast, were officially venerated. Following Pachacuti, the Sapa Inca claimed descent from Inti, who placed a high value on imperial blood; by the end of the empire, it was common to incestuously wed brother and sister. He was "son of the sun", and his people the Intip churin , or "children of the sun", and both his right to rule and mission to conquer derived from his holy ancestor. [ citation needed ] The Sapa Inca also presided over ideologically important festivals, notably during the Inti Raymi or "Sun festival" attended by soldiers, mummified rulers, nobles, clerics and the general population of Cusco beginning on the June solstice and culminating nine days later with the ritual breaking of the earth using a foot plow by the Inca. Moreover, Cusco was considered cosmologically central, loaded as it was with huacas and radiating ceque lines as the geographic center of the Four-Quarters; Inca Garcilaso de la Vega called it "the navel of the universe". [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] Sapa Inca's primary wife was called Coya/Quya and she was considered female equivalent of her husband in the ceremonial-religious matters, being "very important female component of power apparatus", with cults of female deities, particularly goddess of Moon , being subjected to her, just as cults of male deities were subjected to the King. [ 6 ] Most historians assume that Sapa Incas of two dynasties (Hurin and Hanan) ruled linearly, though there are also suggestion the aforementioned two royal lines might have ruled jointly as diarchy , in accordance with Andean customs where two rulers with complementary prerogatives often hold the same office. [ 7 ] Nevertheless, at the time of Spanish conquest it was rulers from Hanan dynasty who appeared to hold key authority. [ 8 ] Organization of the empire The Inca Empire was a decentralized government consisting of a central government with the Inca at its head and four regional quarters, or suyu : Chinchay suyu (NW) Anti suyu (NE) Kunti suyu (SW) Qulla suyu (SE) The four corners of these quarters met at the center, Cuzco. These suyu were likely created around 1460 during the reign of Pachacuti before the empire reached its largest territorial extent. At the time the suyu were established they were roughly of equal size and only later changed their proportions as the empire expanded north and south along the Andes. [ 9 ] Cuzco was likely not organized as a wamani or province. Rather, it was probably somewhat akin to a modern federal district , like Washington, DC or Mexico City. The city sat at the center of the four suyu and served as the preeminent center of politics and religion. While Cusco was essentially governed by the Sapa Inca, his relatives and the royal panaqa lineages, each suyu was governed by an Apu a term of esteem used for men of high status and for venerated mountains. Both Cuzco as a district and the four suyu as administrative regions were grouped into upper hanan and lower hurin divisions. As the Inca did not have written records, it is impossible to exhaustively list the constituent wamani . However, colonial records allow us to reconstruct a partial list. There were likely more than 86 wamani , with more than 48 in the highlands and more than 38 on the coast. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 12 ] Suyu The four suyus or quarters of the empire The most populous suyu was Chinchaysuyu , which encompassed the former Chimú Empire and much of the northern Andes. At its largest extent, it extended through much of what are now Ecuador and Colombia. The largest suyu by area was Qullasuyu , named after the Aymara -speaking Qulla people . It encompassed what is now the Bolivian Altiplano and much of the southern Andes, reaching what is now Argentina and as far south as the Maipo or Maule river in modern Central Chile . [ 13 ] Historian José Bengoa singled out Quillota as likely being the foremost Inca settlement in Chile. [ 14 ] The second smallest suyu , Antisuyu , was northwest of Cusco in the high Andes. Its name is the root of the word "Andes". [ 15 ] Kuntisuyu was the smallest suyu located along the southern coast of modern Peru, extending into the highlands towards Cusco. [ 16 ] Laws The Inca state had no separate judiciary or codified laws . Customs, expectations and traditional local power holders governed behavior. The state had legal force, such as through tukuy rikuq ( lit.   ' he who sees all ' ) or inspectors. The highest such inspector, typically a blood relative to the Sapa Inca, acted independently of the conventional hierarchy, providing a point of view for the Sapa Inca free of bureaucratic influence. [ 17 ] The Inca had three moral precepts that governed their behavior: [ citation needed ] Ama sua : Do not steal Ama llulla : Do not lie Ama quella : Do not be lazy Administration Colonial sources are not entirely clear or in agreement about Inca government structure, such as exact duties and functions of government positions. But the basic structure can be broadly described. The top was the Sapa Inca , who wore the maskaypacha as a symbol of power. [ 18 ] Below that may have been the Willaq Umu , literally the "priest who recounts", the High Priest of the Sun. [ 19 ] However, beneath the Sapa Inca also sat the Inkap rantin , who was a confidant and assistant to the Sapa Inca , perhaps similar to a Prime Minister. [ 20 ] Starting with Topa Inca Yupanqui , a "Council of the Realm" was composed of 16 nobles: 2 from hanan Cusco; 2 from hurin Cusco; 4 from Chinchaysuyu; 2 from Cuntisuyu; 4 from Collasuyu; and 2 from Antisuyu. This weighting of representation balanced the hanan and hurin divisions of the empire, both within Cuzco and within the Quarters ( hanan suyu and hurin suyu ). [ 21 ] While provincial bureaucracy and government varied greatly, the basic organization was decimal. Taxpayers – male heads of household of a certain age range – were organized into corvée labor units (often doubling as military units) that formed the state's muscle as part of mit'a service. Each unit of more than 100 tax-payers were headed by a kuraka , while smaller units were headed by a kamayuq , a lower, non-hereditary status. However, while kuraka status was hereditary and typically served for life, the position of a kuraka in the hierarchy was subject to change based on the privileges of superiors in the hierarchy; a pachaka kuraka could be appointed to the position by a waranqa kuraka . Furthermore, one kuraka in each decimal level could serve as the head of one of the nine groups at a lower level, so that a pachaka kuraka might also be a waranqa kuraka , in effect directly responsible for one unit of 100 tax-payers and less directly responsible for nine other such units. [ 22 ] [ 23 ] [ 24 ] ^ a b Espinoza, Waldemar (1997). Los Incas [ The Incas ] (in Spanish) (3 ed.). Amaru Editores. p. 297. ^ Willey, Gordon R. (1966). An Introduction to American Archaeology: South America . Prentice Hall . pp.  173– 175. ^ D'Altroy 2014 , pp. 86–89, 111, 154–55. ^ Moseley 2001 , pp. 81–85. ^ McEwan 2008 , pp. 138–139. ^ Szemiński, Jan; Ziółkowski, Mariusz (2014). Mity, rytuały i polityka Inków (in Polish) (2nd ed.). pp. 173, 179. ISBN   978-83-64822-01-8 . ^ Szemiński, Jan; Ziółkowski, Mariusz (2014). Mity, rytuały i polityka Inków (in Polish) (2nd ed.). pp.  27– 30. ISBN   978-83-64822-01-8 . ^ Szemiński, Jan; Ziółkowski, Mariusz (2014). Mity, rytuały i polityka Inków (in Polish) (2nd ed.). p. 30. ISBN   978-83-64822-01-8 . ^ Steward 1946 , p. 262. ^ Steward 1946 , pp. 185–192. ^ D'Altroy 2014 , pp. 42–43, 86–89. ^ McEwan 2008 , pp. 113–114. ^ Dillehay, T. ; Gordon, A. (1998). "La actividad prehispánica y su influencia en la Araucanía" . In Dillehay, Tom; Netherly, Patricia (eds.). La frontera del estado Inca . Editorial Abya Yala. ISBN   978-9978-04-977-8 . ^ Bengoa 2003 , pp. 37–38. ^ D'Altroy 2014 , p. 87. ^ D'Altroy 2014 , pp. 87–88. ^ D'Altroy 2014 , pp. 235–236. ^ Baudin, Louis (1961). Daily Life in Peru under the Last of the Incas . Macmillan . ^ D'Altroy 2014 , p. 99. ^ Zuidema, R. T. (Spring 1983). "Hierarchy and Space in Incaic Social Organization". Ethnohistory . 30 (2): 49– 75. doi : 10.2307/481241 . JSTOR   481241 . ^ Zuidema 1983 , p. 48. ^ Julien 1982 , pp. 121–127. ^ D'Altroy 2014 , pp. 233–234. ^ McEwan 2008 , pp. 114–115. ^ Julien 1982 , p. 123. ^ D'Altroy 2014 , p. 233. Read more on Wikipedia →

Culture Monumental architecture Main article: Inca architecture We can assure your majesty that it is so beautiful and has such fine buildings that it would even be remarkable in Spain. —  Francisco Pizarro , [ citation needed ] Architecture was the most important of the Inca arts, with textiles reflecting architectural motifs. The most notable example is Machu Picchu , which was constructed by Inca engineers . The prime Inca structures were made of stone blocks that fit together so well that a knife could not be fitted through the stonework. These constructs have survived for centuries, with no use of mortar to sustain them. This process was first used on a large scale by the Pucara ( c.  300 BC –AD 300) peoples to the south in Lake Titicaca and later in the city of Tiwanaku ( c.  AD 400 –1100) in what is now Bolivia. The rocks were sculpted to fit together exactly by repeatedly lowering a rock onto another and carving away any sections on the lower rock where the dust was compressed. The tight fit and the concavity on the lower rocks made them extraordinarily stable, despite the ongoing challenge of earthquakes and volcanic activity. Tunics Tunic worn by an Inca of high rank, in vicuña wool and cotton (1450–1540), kept at the Washington Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection [ 1 ] Tunics were created by skilled Inca textile-makers as a piece of warm clothing, but they also symbolized cultural and political status and power. Cumbi was the fine, tapestry-woven woolen cloth that was produced and necessary for the creation of tunics. Cumbi was produced by specially-appointed women and men. Generally, textile-making was practiced by both men and women. As emphasized by certain historians, only with European conquest was it deemed that women would become the primary weavers in society, as opposed to Inca society where specialty textiles were produced by men and women equally. [ 2 ] Complex patterns and designs were meant to convey information about order in Andean society as well as the Universe. Tunics could also symbolize one's relationship to ancient rulers or important ancestors. These textiles were frequently designed to represent the physical order of a society, for example, the flow of tribute within an empire. Many tunics have a "checkerboard effect" which is known as the collcapata . According to historians Kenneth Mills, William B. Taylor, and Sandra Lauderdale Graham, the collcapata patterns "seem to have expressed concepts of commonality, and, ultimately, unity of all ranks of people, representing a careful kind of foundation upon which the structure of Inkaic universalism was built." Rulers wore various tunics throughout the year, switching them out for different occasions and feasts. The symbols present within the tunics suggest the importance of "pictographic expression" within Inca and other Andean societies far before the iconographies of the Spanish Christians. [ 3 ] Uncu Uncu was a men's garment similar to a tunic. It was an upper-body garment of knee-length; Royals wore it with a mantle cloth called yacolla . [ 4 ] [ 5 ] Ceramics, precious metals, and textiles Camelid Conopa, 1470–1532, Brooklyn Museum . Small stone figurines, or conopas , of llamas and alpacas were the most common ritual effigies used in the highlands of modern-day Peru and Bolivia. These devotional objects were often buried in the animals' corrals to bring protection and prosperity to their owners and fertility to the herds. The cylindrical cavities in their backs were filled with offerings to the gods in the form of a mixture including animal fat, coca leaves, maize kernels and seashells. Ceramics were painted using the polychrome technique portraying numerous motifs including animals, birds, waves, felines (popular in the Chavin culture ) and geometric patterns found in the Nazca style of ceramics. In a culture without a written language, ceramics portrayed the basic scenes of everyday life, including the smelting of metals, relationships and scenes of tribal warfare. The most distinctive Inca ceramic objects are the urpu (Cuzco bottles or "aryballos"), mainly used for the production of chicha . [ 6 ] Many of these pieces are on display in Lima in the Larco Archaeological Museum and the National Museum of Archaeology, Anthropology and History. Almost all of the gold and silver work of the Inca empire was melted down by the conquistadors and shipped back to Spain. [ 7 ] Coca Coca leaves in Meta Department , Colombia, approached by the Inca for many uses The Incas revered the coca plant as sacred/magical. Its leaves were used in moderate amounts to lessen hunger and pain during work but were mostly used for religious and health purposes. [ 8 ] The Spaniards took advantage of the effects of chewing coca leaves. [ 8 ] The chasquis , messengers who ran throughout the empire to deliver messages, chewed coca leaves for extra energy. Coca leaves were also used as an anaesthetic during surgeries. Banner of the Inca Main articles: Wiphala and Rainbow flag § Andean indigenism Two crowning snakes united by a rainbow without certain royal badge was used as the Inca sign according to Spanish chronicler Bernabé Cobo Chronicles and references from the 16th and 17th centuries support the idea of a banner. However, it represented the Inca (emperor), not the empire. Francisco López de Jerez [ 9 ] wrote in 1534: ...   todos venían repartidos en sus escuadras con sus banderas y capitanes que los mandan, con tanto concierto como turcos. ( ...   all of them came distributed into squads, with their flags and captains commanding them, as well-ordered as Turks. ) Chronicler Bernabé Cobo wrote: The royal standard or banner was a small square flag, ten or twelve spans around, made of cotton or wool cloth, placed on the end of a long staff, stretched and stiff such that it did not wave in the air and on it each king painted his arms and emblems, for each one chose different ones, though the sign of the Incas was the rainbow and two parallel snakes along the width with the tassel as a crown, which each king used to add for a badge or blazon those preferred, like a lion, an eagle and other figures. ( ...   el guión o estandarte real era una banderilla cuadrada y pequeña, de diez o doce palmos de ruedo, hecha de lienzo de algodón o de lana, iba puesta en el remate de una asta larga, tendida y tiesa, sin que ondease al aire, y en ella pintaba cada rey sus armas y divisas, porque cada uno las escogía diferentes, aunque las generales de los Incas eran el arco celeste y dos culebras tendidas a lo largo paralelas con la borda que le servía de corona, a las cuales solía añadir por divisa y blasón cada rey las que le parecía, como un león, un águila y otras figuras. ) - Bernabé Cobo, Historia del Nuevo Mundo (1653) Guaman Poma 's 1615 book, El primer nueva corónica y buen gobierno , shows numerous line drawings of Inca flags. [ 10 ] In his 1847 book A History of the Conquest of Peru , William H. Prescott says that in the Inca army each company had its particular banner and that the imperial standard, high above all, displayed the glittering device of the rainbow, the armorial ensign of the Incas." [ 11 ] A 1917 world flags book says the Inca "heir-apparent ... was entitled to display the royal standard of the rainbow in his military campaigns." [ 12 ] In modern times, the rainbow flag has been wrongly associated with the Tawantinsuyu and displayed as a symbol of Inca heritage by some groups in Peru and Bolivia. The city of Cusco also flies the Rainbow Flag, but as an official flag of the city. The Peruvian president Alejandro Toledo (2001–2006) flew the Rainbow Flag in Lima 's presidential palace. However, according to the Peruvian historiography, the Inca Empire never had a flag. Peruvian historian María Rostworowski said, "I bet my life, the Inca never had that flag, it never existed, no chronicler mentioned it". [ 13 ] Also, to the Peruvian newspaper El Comercio , the flag dates to the first decades of the 20th century, [ 14 ] and even the Congress of the Republic of Peru has determined that the flag is a fake by citing the conclusion of the National Academy of Peruvian History: "The official use of the wrongly called 'Tawantinsuyu flag' is a mistake. In the Pre-Hispanic Andean World there did not exist the concept of a flag, it did not belong to their historic context". [ 14 ] National Academy of Peruvian History Music and dance Coya Cusi Chimbo playing the tinya . Ancient Andean inhabitants shared their experiences through singing and dancing with aqa ( chicha de jora ), though these practices reflected social inequalities, as some dances and songs were reserved for nobles. [ 15 ] Incaic Andean music was pentatonic (using notes re, fa, sol, la, and do). [ 16 ] They composed taki ("songs") with wind and percussion instruments, lacking string instruments. Key wind instruments included the quena (made of cane and bone), zampoña , pututo or huayla quippa , cuyhui (a five-voice whistle), and pincullo (a long flute). Percussion instruments included tinya (a simple small drum), huankar (a large drum with a stick), silver rattles, and chilchile (bells). [ 17 ] Dances were categorized as nobiliary dances for the sapa inca and the panacas, such as uaricsa arawi and guayara , as well as guari for young nobles; masked men's war dances, such as wacon ; and collective dances for laborers ( haylli ), shepherds ( guayayturilla ), and the ayllu in their tasks ( kashua ). [ 17 ] ^ "All T'oqapu Tunic" . Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection . ^ Karen B. Graubart (2000), "Weaving and the Construction of a Gender Division of Labor in Early Colonial Peru", The American Indian Quarterly , 24, no. 4, pp. 537–561. ^ Mills, Kenneth; Taylor, William B.; and Graham, Sandra Lauderdale, eds. Colonial Latin America - A Documentary History , Denver, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2002, pp. 14–18. ^ Cummins, Thomas B. F.; Anderson, Barbara (23 September 2008). The Getty Murua: Essays on the Making of Martin de Murua's "Historia General del Piru", J. Paul Getty Museum Ms. Ludwig XIII 16 . Getty Publications . p. 127. ISBN   978-0-89236-894-5 . ^ Feltham, Jane (1989). Peruvian textiles . Aylesbury . p. 57. ISBN   978-0-7478-0014-9 . ^ Berrin, Kathleen (1997). The Spirit of Ancient Peru - Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera . Thames & Hudson . ISBN   978-0-500-01802-6 . ^ Minster, Christopher. "What Happened to the Treasure Hoard of the Inca Emperor?" . thoughtco.com . Retrieved 13 February 2019 . ^ a b "Cocaine's use: From the Incas to the U.S." Boca Raton News . 4 April 1985 . Retrieved 2 February 2014 . ^ Francisco López de Jerez, Verdadera relación de la conquista del Peru y provincia de Cusco, llamada la Nueva Castilla , 1534. ^ Guaman Poma, El primer nueva corónica y buen gobierno , (1615/1616), pp. 256, 286, 344, 346, 400, 434, 1077, this pagination corresponds to the Det Kongelige Bibliotek search engine pagination of the book. Additionally Poma shows both well drafted European flags and coats of arms on pp. 373, 515, 558, 1077. On pp. 83, 167–171 Poma uses a European heraldic graphic convention, a shield, to place certain totems related to Inca leaders. ^ Preble, George Henry; Charles Edward Asnis (1917). Origin and History of the American Flag and of the Naval and Yacht-Club Signals... Vol. 1. N. L. Brown. p. 85. ^ McCandless, Byron (1917). Flags of the world . National Geographic Society . p. 356. ^ "¿Bandera gay o del Tahuantinsuyo?" . vidayestilo.terra.com.pe . 19 April 2010. Archived from the original on 27 November 2012 . Retrieved 16 December 2013 . ^ a b "La Bandera del Tahuantisuyo" (PDF) (in Spanish). Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 August 2011 . Retrieved 12 June 2009 . ^ Bolaños, C.; García, F.; Pineda, J. R.; Salazar, A. (1978). Mapa de los instrumentos musicales de uso popular en el Perú . Instituto Nacional de Cultura del Perú. ^ D'Harcourt, R.; D'Harcourt, M. (1935). La musique des Incas et ses survivances . ^ a b Salas, Samuel J.A.; Pauletto, Pedro I.; Salas, Pedro J.S. (1938). Historia de la Música. Segundo volumen: América Latina . Editorial José Joaquín de Araujo. p. 13. Read more on Wikipedia →