Portuguese Empire

Origins (1139–1415) Main article: Portugal in the Middle Ages The Conquest of Ceuta on 21 August 1415, led by Henry the Navigator (1394–1460), marked the beginning of the Portuguese Empire. The origin of the Kingdom of Portugal lay in the reconquista , the gradual reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula from the Moors . [ 1 ] After establishing itself as a separate kingdom in 1139, Portugal completed its reconquest of Moorish territory by reaching Algarve in 1249, but its independence continued to be threatened by neighbouring Castile until the signing of the Treaty of Ayllón in 1411. [ 2 ] Free from threats to its existence and unchallenged by the wars fought by other European states, Portuguese attention turned overseas and towards a military expedition to the Muslim lands of North Africa. [ 3 ] There were several probable motives for their first attack, on the Marinid Sultanate (in present-day Morocco). It offered the opportunity to continue the Christian crusade against Islam; to the military class, it promised glory on the battlefield and the spoils of war; [ 4 ] and finally, it was also a chance to expand Portuguese trade and to address Portugal's economic decline. [ 3 ] In 1415 an attack was made on Ceuta , a strategically located North African Muslim enclave along the Mediterranean Sea, and one of the terminal ports of the trans-Saharan gold and slave trades. The conquest was a military success, and marked one of the first steps in Portuguese expansion beyond the Iberian Peninsula, [ 5 ] but it proved costly to defend against the Muslim forces that soon besieged it. The Portuguese were unable to use it as a base for further expansion into the hinterland, [ 6 ] and the trans-Saharan caravans merely shifted their routes to bypass Ceuta and/or used alternative Muslim ports. [ 7 ] ^ Diffie & Winius 1977 , p. 301 ^ Newitt 2005 , pp. 15–17 ^ a b Newitt 2005 , p. 19 ^ Boxer 1969 , p. 19 ^ Abernethy , p. 4 ^ Newitt 2005 , p. 21 ^ Diffie & Winius 1977 , p. 55 Read more on Wikipedia →

First Empire (1415–1663) Main articles: History of Portugal (1415–1578) and Portuguese maritime exploration See also: European enclaves in North Africa before 1830 Although Ceuta proved to be a disappointment for the Portuguese, the decision was taken to hold it while exploring along the Atlantic African coast. [ 1 ] A key supporter of this policy was Infante Dom Henry the Navigator , who had been involved in the capture of Ceuta , and who took the lead role in promoting and financing Portuguese maritime exploration until his death in 1460. [ 2 ] At the time, Europeans did not know what lay beyond Cape Bojador on the African coast. Henry wished to know how far the Muslim territories in Africa extended, and whether it was possible to reach Asia by sea, both to reach the source of the lucrative spice trade and perhaps to join forces with the fabled Christian kingdom of Prester John that was rumoured to exist somewhere in the "Indies". [ 3 ] [ 4 ] Under his sponsorship, soon the Atlantic islands of Madeira (1419) and Azores (1427) were reached and started to be settled, producing wheat for export to Portugal. [ 5 ] Soon its ships were bringing into the European market highly valued gold, ivory, pepper, cotton, sugar, and slaves. The slave trade, for example, was conducted by a few dozen merchants in Lisbon. In the process of expanding the trade routes, Portuguese navigators mapped unknown parts of Africa, and began exploring the Indian Ocean. In 1487, an overland expedition by Pêro da Covilhã made its way to India, exploring trade opportunities with the Indians and Arabs, and winding up finally in Ethiopia. His detailed report was eagerly read in Lisbon, which became the best-informed centre for global geography and trade routes. [ 6 ] Initial African coastline excursions Fears of what lay beyond Cape Bojador , and whether it was possible to return once it was passed, were assuaged in 1434 when it was rounded by one of Infante Henry's captains, Gil Eanes . Once this psychological barrier had been crossed, it became easier to probe further along the coast. [ 7 ] In 1443, Infante Dom Pedro , Henry's brother and by then regent of the Kingdom, granted him the monopoly of navigation, war and trade in the lands south of Cape Bojador. Later this monopoly would be enforced by the papal bulls Dum Diversas (1452) and Romanus Pontifex (1455), granting Portugal the trade monopoly for the newly discovered lands. [ 8 ] A major advance that accelerated this project was the introduction of the caravel in the mid-15th century, a ship that could be sailed closer to the wind than any other in operation in Europe at the time. [ 9 ] Using this new maritime technology, Portuguese navigators reached ever more southerly latitudes , advancing at an average rate of one degree a year. [ 10 ] Senegal and Cape Verde Peninsula were reached in 1445. [ 11 ] 16th century map showing Portuguese claims to Guinea and the castle São Jorge da Mina The first feitoria trade post overseas was established in 1445 on the island of Arguin , off the coast of Mauritania, to attract Muslim traders and monopolise the business in the routes travelled in North Africa. In 1446, Álvaro Fernandes pushed on almost as far as present-day Sierra Leone , and the Gulf of Guinea was reached in the 1460s. [ 12 ] The Cape Verde Islands were discovered in 1456 and settled in 1462. Expansion of sugarcane in Madeira started in 1455, using advisers from Sicily and (largely) Genoese capital to produce the "sweet salt" that was rare in Europe. Already cultivated in Algarve , the accessibility of Madeira attracted Genoese and Flemish traders keen to bypass Venetian monopolies. Slaves were used, and the proportion of imported slaves in Madeira reached 10% of the total population by the 16th century. [ 13 ] By 1480 Antwerp had some seventy ships engaged in the Madeira sugar trade, with the refining and distribution concentrated in Antwerp. By the 1490s Madeira had overtaken Cyprus as a producer of sugar. [ 14 ] The success of sugar merchants such as Bartolomeo Marchionni would propel the investment in future travels. [ 15 ] In 1469, after prince Henry's death and as a result of meagre returns of the African explorations, King Afonso V granted the monopoly of trade in part of the Gulf of Guinea to merchant Fernão Gomes . [ 16 ] Gomes, who had to explore 100 miles (160 km) of the coast each year for five years, discovered the islands of the Gulf of Guinea, including São Tomé and Príncipe , and found a thriving alluvial gold trade among the natives and visiting Arab and Berber traders at the port then named Mina (the mine), where he established a trading post. [ 17 ] Trade between Elmina and Portugal grew throughout a decade. During the War of the Castilian Succession , a large Castilian fleet attempted to wrest control of this lucrative trade, but were decisively defeated in the 1478 Battle of Guinea , which firmly established an exclusive Portuguese control. In 1481, the recently crowned João II decided to build São Jorge da Mina in order to ensure the protection of this trade, which was held again as a royal monopoly. The equator was crossed by navigators sponsored by Fernão Gomes in 1473 and the Congo River by Diogo Cão in 1482. It was during this expedition that the Portuguese first encountered the Kingdom of Kongo , with which it soon developed a rapport. [ 18 ] During his 1485–86 expedition, Cão continued to Cape Cross , in present-day Namibia , near the Tropic of Capricorn . [ 19 ] Portuguese possessions in Morocco (1415–1769) In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the southern tip of Africa and reached the Great Fish River on the coast of Africa, [ 20 ] proving false the view that had existed since Ptolemy that the Indian Ocean was land-locked . Simultaneously Pêro da Covilhã , travelling secretly overland, had reached Ethiopia , suggesting that a sea route to the Indies would soon be forthcoming. [ 21 ] As the Portuguese explored the coastlines of Africa, they left behind a series of padrões , stone crosses engraved with the Portuguese coat of arms marking their claims, [ 22 ] and built forts and trading posts. From these bases, they engaged profitably in the slave and gold trades. Portugal enjoyed a virtual monopoly on the African seaborne slave trade for over a century, importing around 800 slaves annually. Most were brought to the Portuguese capital Lisbon, where it is estimated black Africans came to constitute 10 percent of the population. [ 23 ] Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) The 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas meridian divided the world between the crowns of Portugal and of Castile . Main article: Treaty of Tordesillas Christopher Columbus 's 1492 discovery for Spain of the New World , which he believed to be Asia, led to disputes between the Spanish and the Portuguese. [ 24 ] These were eventually settled by the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which divided the world outside of Europe in an exclusive duopoly between the Portuguese and the Spanish along a north–south meridian 370 leagues, or 970 miles (1,560 km), west of the Cape Verde islands. [ 25 ] However, as it was not possible at the time to correctly measure longitude , the exact boundary was disputed by the two countries until 1777. [ 26 ] The completion of these negotiations with Spain is one of several reasons proposed by historians for why it took nine years for the Portuguese to follow up on Dias's voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, though it has also been speculated that other voyages were in fact taking place in secret during this time. [ 27 ] [ 28 ] Whether or not this was the case, the long-standing Portuguese goal of finding a sea route to Asia was finally achieved in a ground-breaking voyage commanded by Vasco da Gama . [ 29 ] The Portuguese enter the Indian Ocean Main articles: Portuguese discovery of the sea route to India , Portuguese India , Portuguese India Armadas , Indian Ocean trade § Portuguese period , and Portuguese presence in Asia Vasco da Gama (1469–1524) The squadron of Vasco da Gama left Portugal in 1497, rounded the Cape and continued along the coast of East Africa, where a local pilot was brought on board who guided them across the Indian Ocean, reaching Calicut ( Kozhikode ), the capital of the kingdom ruled by Zamorins , in south-western India in May 1498. [ 30 ] The second voyage to India was dispatched in 1500 under Pedro Álvares Cabral . While following the same south-westerly route as Gama across the Atlantic Ocean, Cabral made landfall on the Brazilian coast. This was probably an accidental discovery, but it has been speculated that the Portuguese secretly knew of Brazil's existence and that it lay on their side of the Tordesillas line. [ 31 ] Cabral recommended to the Portuguese King that the land be settled, and two follow up voyages were sent in 1501 and 1503. The land was found to be abundant in pau-brasil , or brazilwood, from which it later inherited its name, but the failure to find gold or silver meant that for the time being Portuguese efforts were concentrated on India. [ 32 ] In 1502, to enforce its trade monopoly over a wide area of the Indian Ocean, the Portuguese Empire created the cartaz licensing system, granting merchant ships protection against pirates and rival states. [ 33 ] Profiting from the rivalry between the ruler of Kochi and the Zamorin of Calicut , the Portuguese were well-received and seen as allies, as they obtained a permit to build the fort Immanuel ( Fort Kochi ) and a trading post that was the first European settlement in India. They established a trading hub at Tangasseri , Quilon ( Coulão , Kollam ) city in (1503) in 1502, which became the centre of trade in pepper, [ 34 ] and after founding manufactories at Cochin ( Cochim , Kochi) and Cannanore ( Canonor , Kannur), built a factory at Quilon in 1503. In 1505 King Manuel I of Portugal appointed Francisco de Almeida first Viceroy of Portuguese India, establishing the Portuguese government in the east. That year the Portuguese also conquered Kannur , where they founded St. Angelo Fort , and Lourenço de Almeida arrived in Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka), where he discovered the source of cinnamon . [ 35 ] Although Cankili I of Jaffna initially resisted contact with them, the Jaffna kingdom came to the attention of Portuguese officials soon after for their resistance to missionary activities as well as logistical reasons due to its proximity with Trincomalee harbour among other reasons. [ 36 ] In the same year, Manuel I ordered Almeida to fortify the Portuguese fortresses in Kerala and within eastern Africa, as well as probe into the prospects of building forts in Sri Lanka and Malacca in response to growing hostilities with Muslims within those regions and threats from the Mamluk sultan. [ 37 ] The carrack Santa Catarina do Monte Sinai epitomised the might and the force of the Portuguese Armada . A Portuguese fleet under the command of Tristão da Cunha and Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Socotra at the entrance of the Red Sea in 1506 and Muscat in 1507. [ 38 ] Having failed to conquer Ormuz , they instead followed a strategy intended to close off commerce to and from the Indian Ocean. [ 39 ] Madagascar was partly explored by Cunha, and Mauritius was discovered by Cunha whilst possibly being accompanied by Albuquerque. [ 40 ] After the capture of Socotra, Cunha and Albuquerque operated separately. While Cunha travelled India and Portugal for trading purposes, Albuquerque went to India to take over as governor after Almeida's three-year term ended. Almeida refused to turn over power and soon placed Albuquerque under house arrest, where he remained until 1509. [ 41 ] Although requested by Manuel I to further explore interests in Malacca and Sri Lanka, Almeida instead focused on western India, in particular the Sultanate of Gujarat due to his suspicions of traders from the region possessing more power. The Mamlûk Sultanate sultan Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri along with the Gujarati sultanate attacked Portuguese forces in the harbor of Chaul , resulting in the death of Almeida's son . In retaliation, the Portuguese fought and destroyed the Mamluks and Gujarati fleets in the sea Battle of Diu in 1509. [ 42 ] Along with Almeida's initial attempts, Manuel I and his council in Lisbon had tried to distribute power in the Indian Ocean, creating three areas of jurisdiction: Albuquerque was sent to the Red Sea, Diogo Lopes de Sequeira to South-east Asia, seeking an agreement with the Sultan of Malacca, and Jorge de Aguiar followed by Duarte de Lemos were sent to the area between the Cape of Good Hope and Gujarat. [ 43 ] However, such posts were centralised by Afonso de Albuquerque after his succession and remained so in subsequent ruling. [ 44 ] Portuguese discoveries and explorations: first arrival places and dates; main Portuguese spice trade routes (blue) 16th century Portuguese illustration from the Códice Casanatense , depicting a Portuguese nobleman with his retinue in India 16th century heavy Portuguese carrack Trade with Maritime Asia, Africa and the Indian Ocean Main articles: Portuguese Macau , History of Goa , Portuguese settlement in Chittagong , Portuguese Malacca , and Portuguese Empire in the Indonesian Archipelago Goa, Malacca and Southeast Asia See also: Adil Shahi–Portuguese conflicts , Malay–Portuguese conflicts , and Acehnese–Portuguese conflicts Second viceroy of India Afonso de Albuquerque , credited with laying the foundations of Portuguese power in Asia By the end of 1509, Albuquerque became viceroy of the East Indies with the capital at Velha Goa , after the Cape Route was discovered by Vasco da Gama. In contrast to Almeida, Albuquerque was more concerned with strengthening the navy, [ 45 ] as well as being more compliant with the interests of the kingdom. [ 46 ] His first objective was to conquer Goa, due to its strategic location as a defensive fort positioned between Kerala and Gujarat, as well as its prominence for Arabian horse imports. [ 42 ] The initial capture of Goa from the Bijapur Sultanate in 1510 was soon countered by the Bijapuris, but with the help of Hindu privateer Timoji , on 25 November of the same year it was recaptured. [ 47 ] [ 48 ] In Goa, Albuquerque began the first Portuguese mint in India in 1510. [ 49 ] He encouraged Portuguese settlers to marry local women, built a church in honor of St. Catherine (as it was recaptured on her feast day), and attempted to build rapport with the Hindus by protecting their temples and reducing their tax requirements. [ 48 ] The Portuguese maintained friendly relations with the south Indian Emperors of the Vijayanagara Empire . [ 50 ] In April 1511, Albuquerque sailed to Malacca on the Malay Peninsula , [ 51 ] the largest spice market of the period. [ 52 ] Though the trade was largely dominated by the Gujarati, other groups such as the Turks, Persians, Armenians, Tamils and Abyssinians traded there. [ 52 ] Albuquerque targeted Malacca to impede the Muslim and Venetian influence in the spice trade and increase that of Lisbon. [ 53 ] By July 1511, Albuquerque had captured Malacca and sent António de Abreu and Francisco Serrão (along with Ferdinand Magellan) to explore the Indonesian archipelago. [ 54 ] Iberian ' mare clausum ' in the Age of Discovery. Albuquerque's strategy to encircle the Indian Ocean is shown. The Malacca peninsula became the strategic base for Portuguese trade expansion with China and Southeast Asia. A strong gate, called the A Famosa , was erected to defend the city and remains. [ 55 ] Learning of Siamese ambitions over Malacca, Albuquerque immediately sent Duarte Fernandes on a diplomatic mission to the Kingdom of Siam (modern Thailand), where he was the first European to arrive, establishing amicable relations and trade between both kingdoms. [ 56 ] [ 57 ] The Portuguese empire pushed further south and proceeded to discover Timor in 1512. Jorge de Meneses discovered New Guinea in 1526, naming it the "Island of the Papua". [ 58 ] In 1517, João da Silveira commanded a fleet to Chittagong , [ 59 ] and by 1528, the Portuguese had established a settlement in Chittagong . [ 60 ] The Portuguese eventually based their centre of operations along the Hugli River , where they encountered Muslims, Hindus, and Portuguese deserters known as Chatins . [ 61 ] China and Japan See also: Chinese people in Portugal , Nanban trade , Slavery in Portugal , and Ecclesiastical Nagasaki Jorge Álvares was the first European to reach China by sea, while the Romans were the first overland via Asia Minor. [ 62 ] [ 63 ] [ 64 ] [ 65 ] He was also the first European to discover Hong Kong. [ 66 ] [ 67 ] In 1514, Afonso de Albuquerque, the viceroy of the Estado da India, dispatched Rafael Perestrello to sail to China in order to pioneer European trade relations with the nation. [ 68 ] [ 69 ] In their first attempts at obtaining trading posts by force, the Portuguese were defeated by the Ming Chinese at the Battle of Tunmen in Tamão or Tuen Mun . In 1521, the Portuguese lost two ships at the Battle of Sincouwaan in Lantau Island . The Portuguese also lost two ships at Shuangyu in 1548 where several Portuguese were captured and near the Dongshan Peninsula . In 1549 two Portuguese junks and Galeote Pereira were captured. During these battles the Ming Chinese captured weapons from the defeated Portuguese which they then reverse engineered and mass-produced in China such as matchlock musket arquebuses which they named bird guns and breech-loading swivel guns which they named as Folangji ( Frankish ) cannon because the Portuguese were known to the Chinese under the name of Franks at this time. The Portuguese later returned to China peacefully and presented themselves under the name Portuguese instead of Franks in the Luso-Chinese agreement (1554) and rented Macau as a trading post from China by paying annual lease of hundreds of silver taels to Ming China. [ 70 ] Despite initial harmony and excitement between the two cultures, difficulties began to arise shortly afterwards, including misunderstanding, bigotry, and even hostility. [ 71 ] The Portuguese explorer Simão de Andrade incited poor relations with China due to his pirate activities, raiding Chinese shipping, attacking a Chinese official, and kidnappings of Chinese. He based himself at Tamao island in a fort. The Chinese claimed that Simão kidnapped Chinese boys and girls to be molested and cannibalised. [ 72 ] The Chinese sent a squadron of junks against Portuguese caravels that succeeded in driving the Portuguese away and reclaiming Tamao. As a result, the Chinese posted an edict banning men with Caucasian features from entering Canton, killing multiple Portuguese there, and driving the Portuguese back to sea. [ 73 ] [ 74 ] After the Sultan of Bintan detained several Portuguese under Tomás Pires, the Chinese then executed 23 Portuguese and threw the rest into prison where they resided in squalid, sometimes fatal conditions. The Chinese then massacred Portuguese who resided at Ningbo and Fujian trading posts in 1545 and 1549, due to extensive and damaging raids by the Portuguese along the coast, which irritated the Chinese. [ 73 ] Portuguese pirating was second to Japanese pirating by this period. However, they soon began to shield Chinese junks and a cautious trade began. In 1557 the Chinese authorities allowed the Portuguese to settle in Macau, creating a warehouse in the trade of goods between China, Japan, Goa and Europe. [ 73 ] [ 75 ] Spice Islands (Moluccas) and Treaty of Zaragoza Main article: Portuguese Empire in the Indonesian Archipelago Portugal was the first European nation to establish trade routes with Japan and China . A significant portion of the crews on Portuguese ships on the Japan voyage were Indian Catholics . [ 76 ] Portuguese operations in Asia did not go unnoticed, and in 1521 Magellan arrived in the region and claimed the Philippines for Spain. In 1525, Spain under Charles V sent an expedition to colonise the Moluccas islands , claiming they were in his zone of the Treaty of Tordesillas , since there was no set limit to the east. The expedition of García Jofre de Loaísa reached the Moluccas, docking at Tidore . With the Portuguese already established in nearby Ternate, conflict was inevitable, leading to nearly a decade of skirmishes. A resolution was reached with the Treaty of Zaragoza in 1529, attributing the Moluccas to Portugal and the Philippines to Spain. [ 77 ] The Portuguese traded regularly with the Bruneian Empire from 1530 and described the capital of Brunei as surrounded by a stone wall. South Asia, Persian Gulf and Red Sea See also: Portuguese–Safavid wars , Portuguese conquest of Hormuz , Portuguese invasion of Bahrain , History of Kuwait , History of Bahrain , Qeshm Island , Bandar Abbas , Portuguese Oman , Portuguese Socotra , Portuguese Ceylon , and Gujarati–Portuguese conflicts The Portuguese empire expanded into the Persian Gulf, contesting control of the spice trade with the Ajuran Sultanate and the Ottoman Empire . Albuquerque conquered the Huwala state of Hormuz at the head of the Persian Gulf in 1515, establishing it as a vassal state. Aden , however, resisted Albuquerque's expedition in that same year and another attempt by Albuquerque's successor Lopo Soares de Albergaria in 1516. In 1521 a force led by António Correia captured Bahrain , defeating the Jabrid King, Muqrin ibn Zamil . [ 78 ] Bahrain was under full Portuguese control by 1521, making it the first Middle Eastern country to be fully colonised by a European power. [ 79 ] In a shifting series of alliances, the Portuguese dominated much of the southern Persian Gulf for the next hundred years. With the regular maritime route linking Lisbon to Goa since 1497, the island of Mozambique became a strategic port, and there was built Fort São Sebastião and a hospital. In the Azores, the Islands Armada protected the ships en route to Lisbon. [ 80 ] The fortress of Diu, one of the most important Portuguese strongholds in India that was besieged by the Ottomans in 1538 . In 1534, Gujarat faced attack from the Mughals and the Rajput states of Chitor and Mandu . The Sultan Bahadur Shah of Gujarat was forced to sign the Treaty of Bassein with the Portuguese, establishing an alliance to regain the country, giving in exchange Daman , Diu , Mumbai and Bassein . It also regulated the trade of Gujarati ships departing to the Red Sea and passing through Bassein to pay duties and allow the horse trade. [ 81 ] After Mughal ruler Humayun had success against Bahadur, the latter signed another treaty with the Portuguese to confirm the provisions and allowed the fort to be built in Diu. Shortly afterward, Humayun turned his attention elsewhere, and the Gujarats allied with the Ottomans to regain control of Diu and lay siege to the fort. The two failed sieges of 1538 and 1546 put an end to Ottoman ambitions, confirming the Portuguese hegemony in the region, [ 81 ] [ 82 ] as well as gaining superiority over the Mughals. [ 83 ] However, the Ottomans fought off attacks from the Portuguese in the Red Sea and in the Sinai Peninsula in 1541, and in the northern region of the Persian Gulf in 1546 and 1552. Each entity ultimately had to respect the sphere of influence of the other, albeit unofficially. [ 84 ] [ 85 ] Sub-Saharan Africa Portuguese carracks unload cargo in Lisbon. Original engraving by Theodor de Bry , 1593, coloured at a later date After a series of prolonged contacts with Ethiopia, the Portuguese embassy made contact with the Ethiopian (Abyssinian) Kingdom led by Rodrigo de Lima in 1520. [ 86 ] [ 87 ] This coincided with the Portuguese search for Prester John, as they soon associated the kingdom as his land. [ 88 ] The fear of Turkish advances within the Portuguese and Ethiopian sectors also played a role in their alliance. [ 86 ] [ 89 ] The Adal Sultanate defeated the Ethiopians in the battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529, and Islam spread further in the region . Portugal responded by aiding king Gelawdewos with Portuguese soldiers and muskets. Though the Ottomans responded with support of soldiers and muskets to the Adal Sultanate, after the death of the Adali sultan Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi in the battle of Wayna Daga in 1543, the joint Adal-Ottoman force retreated. [ 90 ] [ 91 ] [ 92 ] The Portuguese also made direct contact with the Kongolose vassal state Ndongo and its ruler Ngola Kiljuane in 1520, after the latter requested missionaries. [ 93 ] Kongolese king Afonso I interfered with the process with denunciations, and later sent a Kongo mission to Ndongo after the latter had arrested the Portuguese mission that came. [ 93 ] The growing official and unofficial slave trading with Ndongo strained relations between Kongo and the Portuguese, and even had Portuguese ambassadors from São Tomé support Ndongo against the Kingdom of Kongo. [ 94 ] [ 95 ] However, when the Jaga attacked and conquered regions of Kongo in 1568, Portuguese assisted Kongo in their defeat. [ 96 ] In response, the Kongo allowed the colonisation of Luanda Island; Luanda was established by Paulo Dias de Novais in 1576 and soon became a slave port. [ 96 ] [ 97 ] De Novais' subsequent alliance with Ndongo angered Luso-Africans who resented the influence from the Crown. [ 98 ] In 1579, Ndongo ruler Ngola Kiluanje kia Ndamdi massacred Portuguese and Kongolese residents in the Ndongo capital Kabasa under the influence of Portuguese renegades. Both the Portuguese and Kongo fought against Ndongo, and off-and-on warfare between the Ndongo and Portugal would persist for decades. [ 99 ] In east-Africa, the main agents acting on behalf of the Portuguese Crown, exploring and settling the territory of what would become Mozambique were the prazeiros , to whom vast estates around the Zambezi River were leased by the King as a reward for their services. Commanding vast armies of chikunda warrior-slaves, these men acted as feudal-like lords, either levying tax from local chieftains, defending them and their estates from marauding tribes, participating in the ivory or slave trade, and becoming involved in the politics of the Kingdom of Mutapa , to the point of installing client kings upon its throne. Missionary expeditions St. Francis Xavier requesting John III of Portugal for a missionary expedition in Asia In 1542, Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier arrived in Goa at the service of João III of Portugal, in charge of an Apostolic Nunciature . At the same time Francisco Zeimoto , António Mota , and other traders arrived in Japan for the first time. According to Fernão Mendes Pinto , who claimed to be in this journey, they arrived at Tanegashima , where the locals were impressed by firearms , that would be immediately made by the Japanese on a large scale. [ 100 ] By 1570 the Portuguese bought part of a Japanese port where they founded a small part of the city of Nagasaki , [ 101 ] and it became the major trading port in Japan in the triangular trade with China and Europe. [ 102 ] Guarding its trade from both European and Asian competitors, Portugal dominated not only the trade between Asia and Europe, but also much of the trade between different regions of Asia and Africa, such as India, Indonesia, China, and Japan. Jesuit missionaries, followed the Portuguese to spread Catholicism [ 103 ] [ 104 ] to Asia and Africa with mixed success. [ 105 ] Colonisation efforts in the Americas Main article: Portuguese colonization of the Americas Canada The Portuguese mapped and claimed Canada in 1499 and the 1500s. Based on the Treaty of Tordesillas , the Portuguese Crown, under the kings Manuel I, João III and Sebastão, also claimed territorial rights in North America (reached by John Cabot in 1497 and 1498). To that end, in 1499 and 1500, João Fernandes Lavrador explored Greenland and the north Atlantic coast of Canada, which accounts for the appearance of "Labrador" on topographical maps of the period. [ 106 ] Subsequently, in 1500–1501 and 1502, the brothers Gaspar and Miguel Corte-Real explored what is today the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador , and Greenland, claiming these lands for Portugal. In 1506, King Manuel I created taxes for the cod fisheries in Newfoundland waters. [ citation needed ] Around 1521, João Álvares Fagundes was granted donatary rights to the inner islands of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and also created a settlement on Cape Breton Island to serve as a base for cod fishing. Pressure from natives and competing European fisheries prevented a permanent establishment and it was abandoned five years later. Several attempts to establish settlements in Newfoundland over the next half-century also failed. [ 107 ] Brazil Within a few years after Cabral arrived from Brazil, competition came along from France. In 1503, an expedition under the command of Gonçalo Coelho reported French raids on the Brazilian coasts, [ 108 ] and explorer Binot Paulmier de Gonneville traded for brazilwood after making contact in southern Brazil a year later. [ 109 ] Expeditions sponsored by Francis I along the North American coast directly violated of the Treaty of Tordesilhas . [ 110 ] By 1531, the French had stationed a trading post off of an island on the Brazilian coast. [ 110 ] The increase in brazilwood smuggling from the French led João III to press an effort to establish effective occupation of the territory. [ 111 ] In 1531, a royal expedition led by Martim Afonso de Sousa and his brother Pero Lopes went to patrol the whole Brazilian coast, banish the French, and create some of the first colonial towns – among them São Vicente , in 1532. [ 112 ] Sousa returned to Lisbon a year later to become governor of India and never returned to Brazil. [ 113 ] [ 114 ] The French attacks did cease to an extent after retaliation led to the Portuguese paying the French to stop attacking Portuguese ships throughout the Atlantic, [ 110 ] but the attacks would continue to be a problem well into the 1560s. [ 115 ] A map from 1574 showing the 15 hereditary captaincy colonies of Brazil Upon Sousa's arrival and success, fifteen latitudinal tracts, theoretically to span from the coast to the Tordesillas limit, were decreed by João III on 28 September 1532. [ 113 ] [ 116 ] The plot of the lands formed the hereditary captaincies (Capitanias Hereditárias) to grantees rich enough to support settlement, as had been done successfully in Madeira and Cape Verde islands. [ 117 ] Each captain-major was to build settlements, grant allotments and administer justice, being responsible for developing and taking the costs of colonisation, although not being the owner: he could transmit it to offspring, but not sell it. Twelve recipients came from Portuguese gentry who become prominent in Africa and India and senior officials of the court, such as João de Barros . [ 118 ] Of the fifteen original captaincies, only two, Pernambuco and São Vicente , prospered. [ 119 ] Both were dedicated to the crop of sugar cane , and the settlers managed to maintain alliances with Native Americans . The rise of the sugar industry came about because the Crown took the easiest sources of profit (brazilwood, spices, etc.), leaving settlers to come up with new revenue sources. [ 120 ] The establishment of the sugar cane industry demanded intensive labour that would be met with Native American and, later, African slaves. [ 121 ] Deeming the capitanias system ineffective, João III decided to centralise the government of the colony in order to "give help and assistance" to grantees. In 1548 he created the first General Government, sending in Tomé de Sousa as first governor and selecting a capital at the Bay of All Saints , making it at the Captaincy of Bahia . [ 122 ] [ 123 ] Tomé de Sousa built the capital of Brazil, Salvador , at the Bay of All Saints in 1549. [ 124 ] Among Sousa's 1,000 man expedition were soldiers, workers, and six Jesuits led by Manuel da Nóbrega . [ 125 ] The Jesuits would have an essential role in the settlement of Brazil, including the cities of São Vicente, and São Paulo , the latter co-founded by Nóbrega. [ 126 ] Along with the Jesuit missions later came disease among the natives, among them plague and smallpox . [ clarification needed ] [ 127 ] Subsequently, the French would resettle in Portuguese territory at Guanabara Bay , which would be called France Antarctique . [ 128 ] While a Portuguese ambassador was sent to Paris to report the French intrusion, João III appointed Mem de Sá as new Brazilian governor general, and Sá left for Brazil in 1557. [ 128 ] Sá and his forces had by 1560 expelled the combined Huguenot , Scottish Calvinist , and slave forces from France Antarctique, but left survivors after burning their fortifications and villages. These survivors would settle Gloria Bay , Flamengo Beach , and Parapapuã with the assistance of the Tamoio natives. [ 129 ] The Tamoio had been allied with the French since the settlement of France Antarctique, and despite the French loss in 1560, the Tamoio were still a threat. [ 130 ] They launched two attacks in 1561 and 1564 (the latter event was assisting the French), and were nearly successful with each. [ 131 ] [ 132 ] By this time period, Manuel de Nóbrega, along with fellow Jesuit José de Anchieta , took part as members of attacks on the Tamoios and as spies for their resources. [ 130 ] [ 131 ] From 1565 through 1567 Mem de Sá and his forces eventually destroyed France Antarctique at Guanabara Bay. He and his nephew, Estácio de Sá , then established the city of Rio de Janeiro in 1567, after Mem de Sá proclaimed the area "São Sebastião do Rio de Janeiro" in 1565. [ 133 ] By 1575, the Tamoios had been subdued and essentially were extinct, [ 130 ] and by 1580 the government became more of an ouvidor general rather than the ouvidores . [ clarification needed ] [ 134 ] Iberian Union, Protestant rivalry, and colonial stasis (1580–1663) Main articles: Iberian Union , Council of Portugal , Dutch–Portuguese War , and Portuguese Restoration War See also: War of the Portuguese Succession The Iberian Union in 1598, during the reign of Philip I and II , King of Portugal and Spain In 1580, King Philip II of Spain invaded Portugal after a crisis of succession brought about by king Sebastião of Portugal 's death during a disastrous Portuguese attack on Alcácer Quibir in Morocco in 1578. At the Cortes of Tomar in 1581, Philip was crowned Philip I of Portugal, uniting the two crowns and overseas empires under Spanish Habsburg rule in a dynastic Iberian Union . [ 135 ] At Tomar, Philip promised to keep the empires legally distinct, leaving the administration of the Portuguese Empire to Portuguese nationals, with a Viceroy of Portugal in Lisbon seeing to his interests. [ 136 ] Philip even had the capital moved to Lisbon for a two-year period (1581–83) due to it being the most important city in the Iberian peninsula . [ 137 ] All the Portuguese colonies accepted the new state of affairs except for the Azores , which held out for António , a Portuguese rival claimant to the throne who had garnered the support of Catherine de Medici of France in exchange for the promise to cede Brazil. Spanish forces eventually captured the islands in 1583. [ 138 ] The Tordesillas boundary between Spanish and Portuguese control in South America was then increasingly ignored by the Portuguese, who pressed beyond it into the heart of Brazil, [ 136 ] allowing them to expand the territory to the west. Exploratory missions were carried out both ordered by the government, the "entradas" (entries), and by private initiative, the "bandeiras" (flags), by the " bandeirantes ". [ 139 ] These expeditions lasted for years venturing into unmapped regions, initially to capture natives and force them into slavery, and later focusing on finding gold, silver and diamond mines. [ 140 ] The Recovery of São Salvador da Bahia de Todos os Santos , by Philip III of Portugal , from the Dutch Republic However, the union meant that Spain dragged Portugal into its conflicts with England, France and the Dutch Republic , countries which were beginning to establish their own overseas empires. [ 141 ] The primary threat came from the Dutch, who had been engaged in a struggle for independence against Spain since 1568. In 1581, the Seven Provinces gained independence from the Habsburg rule , leading Philip II to prohibit commerce with Dutch ships, including in Brazil where Dutch had invested large sums in financing sugar production. [ 142 ] Spanish imperial trade networks now were opened to Portuguese merchants, which was particularly lucrative for Portuguese slave traders who could now sell slaves in Spanish America at a higher price than could be fetched in Brazil. [ 143 ] In addition to this newly acquired access to the Spanish asientos , the Portuguese were able to solve their bullion shortage issues with access to the production of the silver mining in Peru and Mexico. [ 144 ] Manila was also incorporated into the Macau-Nagasaki trading network, allowing Macanese of Portuguese descent to act as trading agents for Philippine Spaniards and use Spanish silver from the Americas in trade with China, and they later drew competition with the Dutch East India Company. [ 145 ] In 1592, during the war with Spain , an English fleet captured a large Portuguese carrack off the Azores, the Madre de Deus , which was loaded with 900 tons of merchandise from India and China estimated at half a million pounds (nearly half the size of English Treasury at the time). [ 146 ] This foretaste of the riches of the East galvanised English interest in the region. [ 147 ] That same year, Cornelis de Houtman was sent by Dutch merchants to Lisbon, to gather as much information as he could about the Spice Islands. [ 145 ] [ 148 ] Joannes van Doetecum 's 1596 print of " The Market of Goa " in Linschoten 's Itinerario , showing the main street of Portuguese Goa in the 1580s The Dutch eventually came to acknowledge the importance of Goa in breaking up the Portuguese empire in Asia. In 1583, merchant and explorer Jan Huyghen van Linschoten (1563   – 8 February 1611), formerly the Dutch secretary of the Archbishop of Goa, had acquired information while serving in that position that contained the location of secret Portuguese trade routes throughout Asia, including those to the East Indies and Japan. It was published in 1595 and then greatly expanded the next year as his Itinerario . [ 149 ] [ 150 ] Dutch and English interests used this new information, leading to their commercial expansion, including the foundation of the English East India Company in 1600, and the Dutch East India Company in 1602. These developments allowed the entry of chartered companies into the East Indies. [ 151 ] [ 152 ] The Portuguese victory at the Second Battle of Guararapes ended Dutch presence in Pernambuco . The Dutch took their fight overseas, attacking Spanish and Portuguese colonies and beginning the Dutch–Portuguese War , which would last for over sixty years (1602–1663). Other European nations, such as Protestant England, assisted the Dutch Empire in the war. The Dutch attained victories in Asia and Africa with assistance of various indigenous allies, eventually wrenching control of Malacca (1641), Portuguese Gold Coast (1642; Elmina Castle seized by the Dutch already in 1637), Ceylon (1658), and Kochi (1663). The Dutch also had regional control of the lucrative sugar-producing region of northeast Brazil as well as Luanda , but the Portuguese regained these territories after considerable struggle. [ 153 ] [ 154 ] Meanwhile, in the Persian Gulf region, the Portuguese also lost control of Bahrain in 1602, Ormuz was captured by a joint alliance of the Safavids and the English in 1622, [ 38 ] and Muscat was captured by Oman under the Al-Ya'arubs in 1650. [ 155 ] The 1625 Battle off Hormuz , one of the most important of the Portuguese–Safavid wars , would result in a draw. 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