Zheng He

Demonstrate Ming imperial prestige, extract tribute from Southeast Asian kingdoms, and open trade relations to India.

Zheng He's first voyage was the largest fleet the world had ever seen. Departing from Liujiagang near Suzhou in summer 1405, it called at Champa (Vietnam), Java, Palembang (defeating pirate Chen Zuyi), Malacca, Ceylon, and Calicut. At Calicut the admiral presented gifts and received tribute. On Ceylon, the king Alagonakkara attacked the Chinese and was captured — the first time a distant monarch had been deposed by a Chinese expedition.

⚠Accuracy: Ports of call from Ma Huan's Yingya Shenglan and the Yongle Emperor's edicts. Exact routes between ports estimated; open-ocean paths approximate.

Escort foreign envoys home and consolidate the tributary network from the first voyage.

The second voyage primarily escorted home the many foreign envoys who had accompanied Zheng He back to Nanjing. It returned to the ports established on the first voyage — Champa, Java, Siam, Malacca, Calicut — consolidating the Ming tributary network. Cochin was visited for the first time.

⚠Accuracy: Limited records survive; ports approximated from imperial edicts and Ma Huan's later compilation.

Assert Ming authority in Ceylon; extend Indian contacts.

The third voyage extended the Indian Ocean network. A secondary squadron under Yin Qing visited Hormuz for the first time, marking the first Chinese contact with the Persian Gulf. Zheng He defeated King Alagonakkara of Ceylon again, bringing him and his court to Nanjing as tribute payers.

⚠Accuracy: Hormuz contact via secondary squadron only. Ceylon campaign details from Ma Huan.

Reach the Persian Gulf and Arabian Peninsula; first Chinese contact with East Africa.

The fourth voyage was Zheng He's first personal visit to Hormuz and the Arabian Peninsula. He called at Aden (Yemen) and Mogadishu and Malindi (Somalia/Kenya) — the first Chinese fleet to reach East Africa. The Sultan of Malindi sent a giraffe to Nanjing, identified with the mythological qilin and celebrated as a sign of Heaven's approval.

⚠Accuracy: East African landfalls confirmed by the giraffe tribute and diplomatic letters in the Ming Shilu. Mogadishu and Malindi from Fei Xin.

Escort home the foreign ambassadors who had come to Nanjing; extend East Africa contacts.

The fifth voyage again escorted foreign delegations home, this time from as far as East Africa and Arabia. Zheng He returned to all established ports, consolidating China's maritime sphere which now stretched 12,000 km from China to the Swahili ports of East Africa.

⚠Accuracy: Route follows the established pattern; specific waypoints from the Ming Shilu and Fei Xin's Xingcha Shenglan.

Escort remaining foreign envoys home; reinforce the tributary network.

The sixth voyage escorted back envoys collected on the fifth voyage. The Yongle Emperor — Zheng He's greatest patron — died in 1424 while the fleet was at sea. His successor Hongxi immediately suspended the voyages and ordered Zheng He to remain in Nanjing as garrison commander. The great voyages were over — for now.

⚠Accuracy: Sixth voyage poorly documented in the Ming Shilu; exact ports uncertain. Yongle's death and suspension of voyages historically confirmed.

Restore the tributary network after a 10-year hiatus; reach Hormuz and East Africa for the final time.

The seventh and final voyage was launched after a decade-long ban. It visited all established ports and pushed further — a sub-squadron reached Jeddah, 90 km from Mecca. Zheng He died during the return, probably at Calicut, in 1433. After his death, conservative Confucian officials dismantled the treasure fleet programme and destroyed the logbooks; China turned decisively inward.

⚠Accuracy: Best-documented voyage due to the Liujiagong stele (1431) and Changle stele (1432) left by Zheng He himself. His death during the return is widely accepted; exact location uncertain.