Delhi Sultanate

History Background Main articles: Mamluk and Turkic migration Like other agrarian societies in history, those in the Indian subcontinent have been attacked by nomadic tribes throughout its long history. The northwestern subcontinent was a frequent target of tribes raiding from Central Asia in the pre-Islamic era, and the Muslim intrusions and later Muslim invasions were not dissimilar to those of the earlier invasions during the 1st millennium. [ 1 ] The rise of the Delhi Sultanate in India was part of a wider trend affecting much of the Asian continent, including the whole of southern and western Asia: the influx of nomadic Turkic peoples from the Central Asian steppes that traces back to the 9th century when the Islamic Caliphate began fragmenting in the Middle East . Muslim rulers in rival states began enslaving non-Muslim nomadic Turks from the Central Asian steppes and raising many of them to become loyal army slaves called Mamluks . Soon, Turks were migrating to Muslim lands and becoming Islamicized . Many of the Turkic Mamluk slaves eventually rose to become rulers and conquered large parts of the Muslim world , establishing Mamluk Sultanates from Egypt to present-day Afghanistan , before turning their attention to the Indian subcontinent. [ 2 ] South Asia 1175 CE KARAKHANID KHANATE QARA KHITAI GHURID EMPIRE CHAULUKYAS CHAHAMANAS LATE GHAZNAVIDS PARAMARAS WESTERN CHALUKYAS KAKATIYAS SHILA- HARAS CHOLAS CHERAS PANDYAS KADAMBAS HOYSALAS GAHADAVALAS GUHILAS KACHCHAPA- GHATAS CHANDELAS KALACHURIS (TRIPURI) KALACHURIS (RATNAPURA) SENAS KARNATAS KAMARUPAS EASTERN GANGAS GUGE MARYUL LOHA- RAS SOOMRA EMIRATE MAKRAN SULTANATE Main South Asian polities in 1175, on the eve of the Ghurid Empire invasion of the subcontinent. Orange line: Ghurid territorial conquests from 1175 to 1205, which led to the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] By 962 CE, Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms in South Asia faced a series of raids from Muslim armies from Central Asia. [ 5 ] Among them was Mahmud of Ghazni , the son of a Turkic Mamluk military slave, [ 6 ] who raided and plundered kingdoms in northern India from east of the Indus river to west of the Yamuna river seventeen times between 997 and 1030. [ 7 ] Mahmud of Ghazni raided the treasuries but retreated each time, only extending Islamic rule into western Punjab. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] The series of raids on northern and western Indian kingdoms by Muslim warlords continued after Mahmud of Ghazni. [ 10 ] The raids did not establish or extend the permanent boundaries of the Islamic kingdoms. In contrast, the Ghurid Sultan Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad Ghori (commonly known as Muhammad of Ghor) began a systematic war of expansion into northern India in 1173. [ 11 ] He sought to carve out a principality for himself and expand the Islamic world. [ 7 ] [ 12 ] Muhammad of Ghor created a Sunni Islamic kingdom of his own extending east of the Indus River , and he thus laid the foundation for the Muslim kingdom called the Delhi Sultanate. [ 7 ] Some historians chronicle the Delhi Sultanate from 1192 due to the presence and geographical claims of Muhammad of Ghor in South Asia by that time. [ 13 ] Muhammad of Ghor was assassinated in 1206 by Isma'ili Shia Muslims. [ 14 ] After the assassination, one of Ghor's slaves (or Mamluks ), the Turkic Qutb ud-Din Aibak , assumed power, becoming the first Sultan of Delhi. [ 7 ] Dynasties Main articles: List of sultans of Delhi and Sultans of Delhi Family trees Mamluk dynasty (1206–1290) Main article: Mamluk dynasty (Delhi) Territory of the Delhi Mamluk Dynasty circa 1250. [ 15 ] Tomb of Iltutmish (r. 1211–1236) in the Qutb Minar complex. Qutb ud-Din Aibak , a former slave of Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad Ghori , was the first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. Aibak was of Turkic Cuman - Kipchak origin, and due to his background, the dynasty he founded is known as the Mamluk dynasty. [ 16 ] Aibak reigned as the Sultan of Delhi for four years, from 1206 to 1210. He was praised by the contemporary and later accounts for his generosity and was known with the sobriquet of Lakhbaksh (provider of lakhs). [ 17 ] After Aibak died, Aram Shah assumed power in 1210, but he was assassinated in 1211 by Aibak's son-in-law, Shams ud-Din Iltutmish . [ 18 ] Iltutmish's power was precarious, and several Muslim amirs (nobles) challenged his authority as they had been supporters of Qutb al-Din Aibak. After a series of conquests and brutal executions of opposition, Iltutmish consolidated his power. [ 19 ] His rule was challenged several times, such as by Qubacha, and this led to a series of wars. [ 20 ] Iltutmish conquered Multan and Bengal from contesting Muslim rulers, as well as Ranthambore and Sivalik from the Hindu rulers. He also attacked, defeated, and executed Taj al-Din Yildiz , who asserted his rights as heir to Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad Ghori. [ 21 ] Iltutmish's rule lasted until 1236. Following his death, the Delhi Sultanate saw a succession of weak rulers, rebellious Muslim nobility, assassinations, and short-lived tenures. Power shifted from Rukn ud-Din Firuz to Razia Sultana and others, until Ghiyas ud-Din Balban came to power and ruled from 1266 to 1287. [ 20 ] [ 21 ] Ghiyasuddin Balban destroyed the power of the Corps of Forty , a council of usually forty Turkic slaves who had played a role as kingmakers and had been independent of the sultan. He was succeeded by 17-year-old Muiz ud-Din Qaiqabad , who appointed Jalal ud-Din Firuz Khalji as the commander of the army. Khalji assassinated Qaiqabad and assumed power in the Khalji Revolution , thus ending the Mamluk dynasty and founding the Khalji dynasty. Qutb ud-Din Aibak initiated the construction of the Qutb Minar but died before it was completed. It was later completed by his son-in-law, Iltutmish. [ 22 ] The Quwwat-ul-Islam (Might of Islam) Mosque was built by Aibak, now a UNESCO world heritage site. [ 23 ] The Qutub Minar Complex was expanded by Iltutmish, and later by Ala ud-Din Khalji in the early 14th century. [ 23 ] [ note 1 ] During the Mamluk dynasty, many nobles from Afghanistan and Persia migrated and settled in India, as West Asia came under Mongol onslaught. [ 24 ] Khalji dynasty (1290–1320) Main articles: Khalji Revolution , Khalji dynasty , and Mongol invasions of India Territory controlled by Khalji dynasty circa 1320. [ 25 ] The Alai Darwaza , completed in 1311 during the Khalji dynasty. The Khalji dynasty was of Turko-Afghan heritage. [ 26 ] [ 27 ] [ 28 ] [ 29 ] They were originally Turkic, but due to their long presence in Afghanistan, they were treated by others as Afghan as they adopted Afghan habits and customs. [ 30 ] [ 31 ] The first ruler of the Khalji dynasty was Jalal ud-Din Firuz Khalji. He was around 70 years old at the time of his ascension and was known as a mild-mannered, humble and kind monarch to the general public. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] Jalal ud-Din Firuz ruled for 6 years before he was murdered in 1296 by Muhammad Salim of Samana, on the orders of his nephew and son-in-law Juna Muhammad Khalji , [ 34 ] who later came to be known as Ala ud-Din Khalji. [ 35 ] Ala ud-Din began his military career as governor of Kara province, from where he led two raids on the Kingdom of Malwa (1292) and Devagiri (1294) for plunder and loot. After he acceded to the throne, expansions towards these kingdoms were renewed including Gujarat , which was conquered by the Grand Vizier Nusrat Khan Jalesari , [ 36 ] [ 37 ] [ 38 ] the kingdom of Malwa by Ainul Mulk Multani , [ 39 ] [ 40 ] as well as Rajputana . [ 41 ] However, these victories were cut short because of Mongol attacks and plunder raids from the northwest. The Mongols withdrew after plundering and stopped raiding the northwest parts of the Delhi Sultanate. [ 42 ] After the Mongols withdrew, Ala ud-Din Khalji continued to expand the Delhi Sultanate into southern India with the help of Indian slave generals such as Malik Kafur and Khusro Khan . They collected much war booty (anwatan) from those they defeated. [ 43 ] [ 44 ] His commanders collected war spoils and paid ghanima (Arabic: الْغَنيمَة, a tax on spoils of war), which helped strengthen the Khalji rule. Among the spoils was the Warangal loot that included the famous Koh-i-Noor diamond. [ 45 ] 1320 CHAGATAI KHANATE GOLDEN HORDE EMPIRE OF THE GREAT KHAN ILKHANATE GEORGIA DELHI SULTANATE Tungus PINYA KHMER BEYLIKS MAMLUK SULTANATE GO- RYEO MAJAPAHIT MUSCOVY The Delhi Sultanate and contemporary Asian polities circa 1320. Most of the Asian continent was occupied by the Mongol Empire by that time, with Turkic polities occupying South and Western Asia, as far as Egypt where they established the Mamluk Sultanate . Ala ud-Din Khalji changed tax policies, raising agricultural taxes from 20% to 50% (payable in grain and agricultural produce), eliminating payments and commissions on taxes collected by local chiefs, banning socialisation among his officials as well as inter-marriage between noble families to help prevent any opposition forming against him, and he cut salaries of officials, poets and scholars. [ 34 ] These tax policies and spending controls strengthened his treasury to pay the keep of his growing army; he also introduced price controls on all agricultural produce and goods in the kingdom, as well as controls on where, how, and by whom these goods could be sold. Markets called "shahana-i-mandi" were created. [ 46 ] Muslim merchants were granted exclusive permits and monopoly in these "mandis" to buy and resell at official prices. No one other than these merchants could buy from farmers or sell in cities. Those found violating these "mandi" rules were severely punished, often by mutilation. [ 47 ] [ 48 ] Taxes collected in the form of grain were stored in the kingdom's storage. During the famines that followed, these granaries ensured sufficient food for the army. [ 34 ] Historians note Ala ud-Din Khalji as being a tyrant . Anyone, Ala ud-Din suspected of being a threat to this power, was killed along with the men, women, and children of that family. He grew to eventually distrust the majority of his nobles and favoured only a handful of his slaves and family. In 1298, between 15 000 and 30 000 Mongols near Delhi, who had recently converted to Islam, were slaughtered in a single day, due to a mutiny during an invasion of Gujarat. [ 49 ] He is also known for his cruelty against the kingdoms he defeated in battle. After Ala ud-Din died in 1316 by assassination through his nobles, his general Malik Kafur, who was born to a Hindu family but converted to Islam, assumed de facto power and was supported by non-Khalji nobles like Kamal al-Din Gurg . However, he lacked the support of the majority of Khalji's nobles who had him assassinated, hoping to take power for themselves. [ 34 ] However, the new ruler had the killers of Kafur executed. The last Khalji ruler was Ala ud-Din Khalji's 18-year-old son Qutb ud-Din Mubarak Shah Khalji , who ruled for four years before he was killed by Khusrau Khan , another slave-general with Hindu origins, who reverted from Islam and favoured his Hindu Baradu military clan in the nobility. Khusrau Khan's reign lasted only a few months, when Ghazi Malik, later to be called Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq , defeated and killed him and assumed power in 1320, thus ending the Khalji dynasty and starting the Tughlaq dynasty. [ 24 ] [ 49 ] Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1413) Main article: Tughlaq dynasty Territory of the Tughlaq dynasty circa 1330–1335, corresponding to the maximum extent of the Delhi Sultanate. [ 50 ] Ghiyath al-Din Tughlaq was of Turko-Mongol [ 51 ] or Turkic [ 52 ] origins. Ghiyath al-Din ruled for five years and built a town near Delhi named Tughlaqabad . [ 53 ] His son Juna Khan and general Ainul Mulk Multani conquered Warangal in south India. [ 54 ] According to some historians such as Vincent Smith , [ 55 ] he was killed by his son Juna Khan, who then assumed power in 1325. Juna Khan, better known as Muhammad bin Tughluq , ruled for 26 years. [ 56 ] During his rule, the Delhi Sultanate reached its peak in terms of geographical reach, covering most of the Indian subcontinent. [ 57 ] Muhammad bin Tughluq was an intellectual, with extensive knowledge of the Quran, Fiqh , poetry and other fields. He was also deeply suspicious of his kinsmen and wazirs (ministers), extremely severe with his opponents, and took decisions that caused economic upheaval. For example, he ordered the minting of coins from base metals with face value of silver coins – a decision that failed because ordinary people minted counterfeit coins from base metals they had in their houses and used them to pay taxes and jizya . [ 57 ] [ 55 ] Depiction of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq , founder of the Tughlaq dynasty, in the Basātin al-uns by Ikhtisān-i Dabir , a member of the Tughluq court and an ambassador to Iran. Ca. 1410 Jalayirid copy of 1326 lost original. [ 58 ] Muhammad bin Tughlaq chose the city of Deogiri in the present-day Indian state of Maharashtra (renaming it Daulatabad ), as the second administrative capital of the Delhi Sultanate. [ 59 ] He ordered a forced migration of the Muslim population of Delhi, including his royal family, the nobles, Sayyids , Sheikhs and Ulama to settle in Daulatabad. The purpose of transferring the entire Muslim elite to Daulatabad was to enrol them in his mission of world conquest. He saw their role as propagandists who would adapt Islamic religious symbolism to the rhetoric of empire, and that the Sufis could by persuasion bring many of the inhabitants of the Deccan to become Muslim. [ 60 ] Tughluq cruelly punished the nobles who were unwilling to move to Daulatabad seeing their non-compliance with his order as equivalent to rebellion. According to Ferishta, when the Mongols arrived in Punjab , the Sultan returned the elite to Delhi, although Daulatabad remained an administrative centre. [ 61 ] One result of the transfer of the elite to Daulatabad was the hatred of the nobility to the Sultan, which remained in their minds for a long time. [ 62 ] The other result was that he managed to create a stable Muslim elite, resulting in the growth of the Muslim population of Daulatabad, who did not return to Delhi, [ 57 ] without which the rise of the Bahmanid kingdom to challenge the Vijayanagara kingdom would not have been possible. [ 63 ] Muhammad bin Tughlaq's adventures in the Deccan region also marked campaigns of destruction and desecration temples, for example, the Svayambhu Shiva Temple and the Thousand Pillar Temple in Warangal . [ 64 ] Revolts against Muhammad bin Tughlaq began in 1327, continued over his reign, and over time the geographical reach of the Sultanate shrank. The Vijayanagara Empire originated in southern India as a direct response to attacks from the Delhi Sultanate, [ 65 ] and liberated south India from the Delhi Sultanate's rule. [ 66 ] In the 1330s, Muhammad bin Tughlaq ordered an invasion of China, sending part of his forces over the Himalayas . However, they were defeated by the Kangra State . [ 67 ] During his reign, state revenues collapsed due to his policies, such as the base metal coins from 1329 to 1332. Famines, widespread poverty, and rebellion grew across the kingdom. In 1338, his nephew rebelled in Malwa, whom he attacked, caught, flayed alive, and killed ultimately. [ 68 ] [ 69 ] By 1339, the eastern regions under local Muslim governors and southern parts led by Hindu kings had revolted and declared independence from the Delhi Sultanate. Muhammad bin Tughlaq did not have the resources or support to respond to the shrinking kingdom. [ 70 ] The historian Walford chronicled that Delhi and most of India faced severe famines during Muhammad bin Tughlaq's rule in the years after the base metal coin experiment. [ 71 ] [ 72 ] In 1335, Jalaluddin Ahsan Khan, a Sayyid from Kaithal in northern India, revolted and founded the Madurai Sultanate in South India. [ 73 ] [ 74 ] [ 75 ] By 1347, the Bahmani Sultanate had become independent through the rebellion of Ismail Mukh . It became a competing Muslim kingdom in the Deccan region of South Asia, founded by Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah . [ 5 ] [ 76 ] [ 77 ] [ 78 ] Muhammad bin Tughlaq died in 1351 while trying to chase and punish people in Gujarat who were rebelling against the Delhi Sultanate. [ 70 ] He was succeeded by Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388), who tried to regain the old kingdom, boundary by waging a war with Bengal for 11 months in 1359. However, Bengal did not fall. Firuz Shah ruled for 37 years. His reign was marked with prosperity much of which was due to the wise and capable Grand Vizier, Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul , a South Indian Telugu Muslim. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] His reign attempted to stabilise the food supply and reduce famines by commissioning an irrigation canal from the Yamuna | river. An educated sultan, Firuz Shah, left a memoir. [ 84 ] In it he wrote that he banned the practice of torture, such as amputations, tearing out of eyes, sawing people alive, crushing people's bones as punishment, pouring molten lead into throats, setting people on fire, driving nails into hands and feet, among others. [ 85 ] He also wrote that he did not tolerate attempts by Rafawiz Shia Muslim and Mahdi sects from proselytizing people into their faith, nor did he tolerate Hindus who tried to rebuild temples that his armies had destroyed. [ 86 ] Firuz Shah Tughlaq also lists his accomplishments to include converting Hindus to Sunni Islam by announcing an exemption from taxes and jizya for those who convert, and by lavishing new converts with presents and honours. [ 87 ] [ 88 ] [ 89 ] He also vastly expanded the number of slaves in his service and those of Muslim nobles, who were converted to Islam, taught to read and memorize the Quran, and employed in many offices especially in the military, out of which he was able to amass a large army. [ 90 ] These slaves were known as the Ghulaman-i-Firuz Shahi formed an elite guard which later became influential in the state. [ 91 ] [ 92 ] The reign of Firuz Shah Tughlaq was marked by reduction in extreme forms of torture, elimination of favours to select parts of society, but also increased intolerance and persecution of targeted groups, [ 85 ] the latter of which resulting in conversion of significant parts of the population to Islam. [ 93 ] A base metal coin of Muhammad bin Tughlaq that led to an economic collapse. The death of Firuz Shah Tughlaq created anarchy and the disintegration of the kingdom. Firuz Shah's successor, his great-grandson, Ghiyath-ud-Din Shah II was young and inexperienced and gave himself up to wine and pleasure. The nobles rose against him, killed the Sultan and his vizier, and installed a grandson of Firuz, Abu Bakr Shah on the throne. [ 94 ] However, the old Ghulaman-i-Firuz Shahi turned against Abu Bakr, who fled, and on their invitation Nasir-ud-Din Muhammad Shah was installed on the throne. [ 95 ] The anamalous institution of the Ghulaman-i-Firuz Shahi became a corrupting influence on the successive Sultans following Firuz Shah. [ 96 ] The last rulers of this dynasty both called themselves Sultan from 1394 to 1397: Mahmud Shah Tughluq , the grandson of Firuz Shah Tughlaq who ruled from Delhi, and Nusrat Shah Tughluq , brother of Tughluq Khan and another great-grandson of Firuz who ruled from Firozabad , which was a few miles from Delhi. [ 97 ] The battle between the two relatives continued until Timur's invasion in 1398. Timur , also known as Tamerlane in Western scholarly literature, was the Turko-Mongol ruler of the Timurid Empire . He became aware of the weakness and quarrelling of the rulers of the Delhi Sultanate, so he marched with his army to Delhi, plundering and killing all the way. [ 98 ] [ 99 ] Estimates for the massacre by Timur in Delhi range from 100 000 to 200 000 people. [ 100 ] [ 101 ] Timur had no intention of staying in or ruling India. He looted the lands he crossed, then plundered and burnt Delhi. Over fifteen days, Timur and his army raged a massacre. [ 102 ] [ 103 ] Then he collected wealth, captured women and men and children, and enslaved people (particularly skilled artisans), and returning with this loot to Samarkand. The people and lands within the Delhi Sultanate were left in a state of anarchy, chaos, and pestilence. [ 97 ] Nasir ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughlaq, who had fled to Gujarat during Timur's invasion, returned and nominally ruled as the last ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty, as a puppet of the various factions at the court. [ 104 ] Sayyid dynasty (1414–1450) Main article: Sayyid dynasty Territories of the Sayyid Dynasty. [ 105 ] The tomb of Muhammad Shah at Lodi Gardens , New Delhi. The Sayyid dynasty was founded by Khizr Khan and it ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1415 to 1451. [ 5 ] Members of the dynasty derived their title, Sayyid , or the descendants of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad , based on the claim that they belonged to his lineage through his daughter Fatima . [ 106 ] Modern historians consider their claim of sayyid descent doubtful, although several scholars suggest him to have descended from an Arab family settled in Multan, [ 107 ] [ 108 ] while according to Richard M. Eaton and Simon Digby , Khizr Khan was a Punjabi chieftain from Khokhar clan. [ 109 ] [ 110 ] The Timurid invasion and plunder had left the Delhi Sultanate in shambles, and little is known about the rule by the Sayyid dynasty. Annemarie Schimmel notes the first ruler of the dynasty as Khizr Khan, who assumed power as a vassal of the Timurid Empire . His successor was Mubarak Khan, who renamed himself Mubarak Shah , discontinued his father's nominal allegiance to Timur and unsuccessfully tried to regain lost territories in Punjab from Khokhar warlords. [ 104 ] [ 111 ] With the power of the Sayyid dynasty faltering, Islam's history on the Indian subcontinent underwent a profound change, according to Schimmel. [ 104 ] The previously dominant Sunni sect of Islam became diluted, alternate Muslim sects such as the Shia rose, and new competing centres of Islamic culture took root beyond Delhi. In the course of the late Sayyid dynasty, the Delhi Sultanate shrank until it became a minor power. By the time of the last Sayyid ruler, Alam Shah (whose name translated to "king of the world"), this resulted in a common northern Indian witticism, according to which the "kingdom of the king of the world extends from Delhi to Palam ", i.e. merely 13 kilometres (8.1 mi). Historian Richard M. Eaton noted that this saying showcased how the "once-mighty empire had become a joke". [ 112 ] The Sayyid dynasty was displaced by the Lodi dynasty in 1451, however, resulting in a resurgence of the Delhi Sultanate. [ 112 ] Lodi dynasty (1451–1526) Main article: Lodi dynasty Territory of the Lodi Sultanate (1451–1526). [ 113 ] Ibrahim Lodi , last Sultan of the Lodi dynasty , at the Battle of Panipat (1526) against Babur , Baburnama c. 1590 The Lodi dynasty was an Afghan or Turco-Afghan dynasty, [ a ] related to the Pashtun ( Afghan ) Lodi tribe . [ 115 ] [ 116 ] The founder of the dynasty, Bahlul Khan Lodi , was a Khalji of the Lodi clan. [ 117 ] He started his reign by attacking the Muslim Jaunpur Sultanate to expand the influence of the Delhi Sultanate and was partially successful through a treaty. Thereafter, the region from Delhi to Varanasi (then at the border of Bengal province), was back under the influence of the Delhi Sultanate. After Bahlul Lodi died, his son Nizam Khan assumed power, renamed himself Sikandar Lodi and ruled from 1489 to 1517. [ 118 ] One of the better-known rulers of the dynasty, Sikandar Lodi expelled his brother Barbak Shah from Jaunpur, installed his son Jalal Khan as the ruler, then proceeded east to make claims on Bihar . The Muslim governors of Bihar agreed to pay tribute and taxes but operated independently of the Delhi Sultanate. Sikandar Lodi led a campaign of destruction of temples, particularly around Mathura . He also moved his capital and court from Delhi to Agra . [ 119 ] Sikandar thus erected buildings with Indo-Islamic architecture in Agra during his rule, and the growth of Agra continued during the Mughal Empire, after the end of the Delhi Sultanate. [ 120 ] [ 121 ] Sikandar Lodi died a natural death in 1517, and his second son Ibrahim Lodi assumed power. Ibrahim did not enjoy the support of Afghan and Persian nobles or regional chiefs. [ 122 ] Ibrahim attacked and killed his elder brother Jalal Khan, who was installed as the governor of Jaunpur by his father and had the support of the amirs and chiefs. [ 120 ] Ibrahim Lodi was unable to consolidate his power, and after Jalal Khan's death, the governor of Lahore, Daulat Khan Lodi , reached out to the Mughal Babur and invited him to attack the Delhi Sultanate. [ 123 ] Babur defeated and killed Ibrahim Lodi in the battle of Panipat in 1526. The death of Ibrahim Lodi ended the Delhi Sultanate, and the Mughal Empire replaced it. [ 124 ] ^ Richard M. Frye, "Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Cultures in Central Asia", in Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective , ed. Robert L. Canfield (Cambridge University Press, c. 1991), 35-53. ^ Asher & Talbot 2008 , pp. 19, 50–51. ^ Schwartzberg 1978 , pp. 37, 147. ^ Eaton 2020 , p. 38. ^ a b c See: M. Reza Pirbha, Reconsidering Islam in a South Asian Context, ISBN   978-9004177581 , Brill The Islamic frontier in the East: Expansion into South Asia, Journal of South Asian Studies, 4(1), p. 91–109 Sookoohy M., Bhadreswar – Oldest Islamic Monuments in India, ISBN   978-9004083417 , Brill Academic; see discussion of earliest raids in Gujarat ^ Asher & Talbot 2008 , p. 19. ^ a b c d Jackson 2003 , pp. 3–30. ^ Heathcote, T. A. (1995). "The Military in British India: The Development of British Land Forces in South Asia, 1600–1947" . Manchester University Press. pp.  5– 7. ISBN   978-0-7190-3570-8 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN ( link ) ^ Barnett, Lionel D. (1999). "Antiquities of India: An Account of the History and Culture of Ancient Hindustan" . Atlantic Publishers & Dist. pp.  73– 79. ISBN   978-81-7156-442-2 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN ( link ) ^ Davis, Richard H. (January 1994). "Three styles in looting India". History and Anthropology . 6 (4): 293– 317. doi : 10.1080/02757206.1994.9960832 . ^ MUHAMMAD B. SAM Mu'izz AL-DIN, T.W. Haig, Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol. VII, ed. C.E.Bosworth, E.van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs and C. Pellat, (Brill, 1993) ^ C.E. Bosworth, Tidge History of Iran, Vol. 5, ed. J. A. Boyle, John Andrew Boyle, (Cambridge University Press, 1968), p 161-170 ^ History of South Asia: A Chronological Outline Columbia University (2010) ^ Muʿizz al-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Sām Encyclopædia Britannica (2011) ^ Schwartzberg 1978 , p. 147, map XIV.3 (h). ^ Jackson P. (1990), The Mamlūk institution in early Muslim India, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland (New Series), 122(02), p. 340-358. ^ Nizami, K. A. (1992). "FOUNDATION OF THE DELHI SULTANAT". A Comprehensive History of India: The Delhi Sultanate (A.D. 1206–1526) . People's Publishing House . pp.  205– 206. All contemporary and later chroniclers praise the qualities of loyalty, generosity, courage and justice in his character. His generosity won for him the sobriquet of lakhbaksh (giver of lakhs) ^ C.E. Bosworth, The New Islamic Dynasties, Columbia University Press (1996) ^ Barnett & Haig (1926), A review of History of Mediaeval India, from ad 647 to the Mughal Conquest – Ishwari Prasad, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland (New Series), 58(04), p. 780-783 ^ a b Jackson 2003 , pp. 29–48. ^ a b Anzalone, Christopher (2008), "Delhi Sultanate", in Ackermann, M. E. etc. (Editors), Encyclopedia of World History 2, ISBN   978-0-8160-6386-4 ^ "Qutub Minar" . Archived from the original on 23 July 2015 . Retrieved 5 August 2015 . ^ a b Qutb Minar and its Monuments, Delhi UNESCO ^ a b c Welch, Anthony; Crane, Howard (1983). "The Tughluqs: Master Builders of the Delhi Sultanate" (PDF) . Muqarnas . 1 . Brill: 123– 166. doi : 10.2307/1523075 . JSTOR   1523075 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 August 2016 . Retrieved 13 August 2016 . ^ Schwartzberg 1978 , p. 147, map XIV.3 (i). ^ Khan, Hussain Ahmad (2014). Artisans, Sufis, Shrines: Colonial Architecture in Nineteenth-Century Punjab . I.B.Tauris . p. 15. ISBN   9781784530143 . ^ Yunus, Mohammad; Aradhana, Parmar (2003). South Asia: a historical narrative . Oxford University Press. p. 97. ISBN   978-0-1957-9711-4 . Retrieved 23 August 2010 . ^ Kumar Mandal, Asim (2003). The Sundarbans of India: A Development Analysis . Indus Publishing. p. 43. ISBN   978-81-738-7143-6 . Retrieved 19 November 2012 . ^ Singh, D. (1998). The Sundarbans of India: A Development Analysis . APH Publishing. p. 141. ISBN   978-81-702-4992-4 . Retrieved 19 November 2012 . ^ Chaurasia, Radhey Shyam (2002). History of medieval India: from 1000 A.D. to 1707 A.D. Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. p. 28. ISBN   978-81-269-0123-4 . Retrieved 23 August 2010 . The Khaljis were a Turkish tribe but having been long domiciled in Afghanistan, adopted Afghan habits and customs. They were treated as Afghans in Delhi Court. ^ Cavendish, Marshall (2006). World and Its Peoples: The Middle East, Western Asia, and Northern Africa . Marshall Cavendish. p. 320. ISBN   978-0-7614-7571-2 . Retrieved 23 August 2010 . The members of the new dynasty, although they were also Turkic, had settled in Afghanistan and brought a new set of customs and culture to Delhi. ^ Srivastava 1929 , p. 141. ^ A. B. M. Habibullah (1992) [1970]. "The Khaljis: Jalaluddin Khalji" . In Mohammad Habib; Khaliq Ahmad Nizami (eds.). A Comprehensive History of India . Vol. 5: The Delhi Sultanate (A.D. 1206–1526). The Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House. p. 312. OCLC   31870180 . ^ a b c d Holt et al., The Cambridge History of Islam – The Indian sub-continent, south-east Asia, Africa and the Muslim west, ISBN   978-0521291378 , p. 9-13 ^ New Indian Antiquary - Volume 2 . Karnatak Publishing House. 1939. p. 545. Alauddin gave the signal and in a twinkling Muhammad Salim of Samana struck ^ AL. P. Sharma (1987). History of medieval India (1000–1740 A.D.) . TKonark Publishers. ISBN   9788122000429 . ^ Yasin Mazhar Siddiqi (1972). "the Kotwals under the Sultans of Delhi". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress . Indian History Congress: 194. JSTOR   44145331 . Nusrat Khan Jalesari who was the Kotwal in the first year of the Alai reign was an Indian Muslim ^ "The Life and Works of Sultan Alauddin Khalji" . Atlantic Publishers & Dist. 1992. ISBN   9788171563623 . the Sultan appointed his Wazir Nusrat Khan to deal with the Jalali nobles {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN ( link ) ^ Fauja Singh (1972). History of the Punjab - A.D. 1000–1526 . p. 150. ^ Satish Chandra (2004). "Medieval India - From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206–1526) - Part One" . Har-Anand Publications. ISBN   9788124110645 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN ( link ) ^ Alexander Mikaberidze , Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia, ISBN   978-1598843361 , p. 62-63 ^ Rene Grousset – Empire of steppes, Chagatai Khanate; Rutgers Univ Press, New Jersey, 1988 ISBN   0-8135-1304-9 ^ "Gujarat State Gazetteer: Part 1" . 1989. p. 164. ^ Frank Fanselow (1989), Muslim society in Tamil Nadu (India): a historical perspective, Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, 10(1), p. 264-289 ^ Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund, A History of India, 3rd ed., Routledge, 1998, ISBN   0-415-15482-0 ^ Srivastava 1929 , pp. 156–158 ^ M.A. Farooqi (1991), The economic policy of the Sultans of Delhi, Konark publishers, ISBN   978-8122002263 ^ Jackson 2003 , pp. 244–248. ^ a b Smith 1920 , pp. 231–235. ^ Schwartzberg 1978 , p. 147, map XIV.3 (j). ^ ÇAĞMAN, FİLİZ; TANINDI, ZEREN (2011). "Selections from Jalayirid Books in the Libraries of Istanbul" (PDF) . Muqarnas . 28 : 231. ISSN   0732-2992 . JSTOR   23350289 . Muhammad Tughluq and his successors were contemporaries of the Jalayirid sultans; both dynasties were Turco-Mongol ^ Jamal Malik (2008). "Islam in South Asia: A Short History" . Brill Publishers . p. 104. ISBN   978-9004168596 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN ( link ) ^ "Eight Cities of Delhi: Tughlakabad" . Delhi Tourism . ^ Siddiqui (1980). "The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition: Supplement, Parts 1-2" . Brill Archive. p. 105. ISBN   9004061673 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN ( link ) ^ a b Smith 1920 , pp. 236–242. ^ Elliot and Dowson, Táríkh-i Fíroz Sháhí of Ziauddin Barani, The History of India as Told by Its Historians. The Muhammadan Period (Vol 3), London, Trübner & Co ^ a b c Muḥammad ibn Tughluq Encyclopædia Britannica ^ ÇAĞMAN, FİLİZ; TANINDI, ZEREN (2011). "Selections from Jalayirid Books in the Libraries of Istanbul" (PDF) . Muqarnas . 28 : 230, 258 Fig.56. ISSN   0732-2992 . JSTOR   23350289 . ^ Ray 2019 , p. 115: "The Sultan created Daulatabad as the second administrative centre. A contemporary writer has written that the Empire had two capitals – Delhi and Daulatabad." ^ Carl W. Ernst (1992). Eternal Garden: Mysticism, History, and Politics at a South Asian Sufi Center . SUNY Press. ISBN   9781438402123 . ^ Ray 2019 , p. 115. ^ Ray 2019 , p. 115: "The primary result of the transfer of the capital to Daulatabad was the hatred of the people towards the Sultan." ^ P.M. Holt; Ann K.S. Lambton; Bernard Lewis (1977). "The Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 2A" . Cambridge University Press. p. 15. ^ Cite error: The named reference regbook was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund, A History of India , (Routledge, 1986), 188. ^ Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India by Jl Mehta p. 97 ^ Chandra, Satish (1997). Medieval India: From Sultanate to the Mughals. New Delhi, India: Har-Anand Publications. p. 101-102. ISBN   978-8124105221 . ^ Elphinstone, Mountstuart (2014). "History Of India" . Pickle Partners Publishing. ISBN   978-1-78289-478-0 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN ( link ) ^ "A Compendium of the History of India: With a Synopsis of the Principal Events" . Gantz Bros. 1870. p. 37. ^ a b Smith 1920 , pp. 242–248. ^ Cornelius Walford (1878), The Famines of the World: Past and Present , p. 3, at Google Books , p. 9-10 ^ Judith Walsh, A Brief History of India, ISBN   978-0816083626 , p. 70-72; Quote: "In 1335–1342, during a severe famine and death in the Delhi region, the Sultanate offered no help to the starving residents." ^ Raj Kumar (2003). "Essays on Medieval India" . Discovery Publishing House. p. 82. ISBN   9788171416837 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN ( link ) ^ Kate Fleet; Gudrun Krämer; Denis Matringe; John Nawas; Devin J. Stewart (January 2018). "Jalal al-Din Ahsan" . ^ M. S. Nagaraja Rao (1987). "Kusumāñjali: New Interpretation of Indian Art & Culture: Sh. C. Sivaramamurti Commemoration Volume · Volume 2" . ^ Suvorova (2000). "Masnavi" . Oxford University Press. p. 3. ISBN   978-0-19-579148-8 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN ( link ) ^ Husaini (Saiyid.), Abdul Qadir (1960). "Bahman Shāh, the Founder of the Bahmani Kingdom" . Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay. pp.  59– 60. ^ Jayanta Gaḍakarī (2000). "Hindu Muslim Communalism, a Panchnama" . p. 140. ^ McKibben, William Jeffrey (1994). "The Monumental Pillars of Fīrūz Shāh Tughluq". Ars Orientalis . 24 : 105– 118. JSTOR   4629462 . ^ HM Elliot & John Dawson (1871), Tarikh I Firozi Shahi – Records of Court Historian Sams-i-Siraj The History of India as told by its historians, Volume 3, Cornell University Archives, p. 352-353 ^ Prinsep, J. (1837). "Interpretation of the most ancient of inscriptions on the pillar called lat of Feroz Shah, near Delhi, and of the Allahabad, Radhia and Mattiah pillar, or lat inscriptions which agree therewith" . Journal of the Asiatic Society . 6 (2): 600– 609. ^ Mehta (1979). Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India - Volume 2 . p. 225. Khan-i-Jahan was a Brahmin from Telangana whose original name was Kattu or Kannu. Kannu was brought a captive to Delhi, where he embraced Islam and was given the name of Maqbul. No wonder Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul and his family made a great contribution towards the initial administrative achievements of Sultan Firuz Tughlaq; the peace and prosperity of his reign during the first two decades are unintelligible unless the services rendered by Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul to the throne are taken into consideration. ^ Iqtidar Alam Khan (2008). "Historical Dictionary of Medieval India" . Scarecrow Press. p. 141. ISBN   9780810864016 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN ( link ) ^ Firoz Shah Tughlak, Futuhat-i Firoz Shahi – Memoirs of Firoz Shah Tughlak , Translated in 1871 by Elliot and Dawson, Volume 3 – The History of India, Cornell University Archives ^ a b Smith 1920 , pp. 249–251. ^ Firoz Shah Tughlak, Futuhat-i Firoz Shahi – Autobiographical memoirs , Translated in 1871 by Elliot and Dawson, Volume 3 – The History of India, Cornell University Archives, p. 377-381. ^ Dasgupta, Ajit K. (2002). "A History of Indian Economic Thought" . Routledge. p. 45. ISBN   978-1-134-92551-3 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN ( link ) ^ Futuhat-i Firoz Shahi Simultaneously, he raised taxes and jizya , assessing it at three levels, and stopping the practice of his predecessors who had historically exempted all Hindu Brahmins from the jizya. ^ Annemarie Schimmel , Islam in the Indian Subcontinent, ISBN   978-9004061170 , Brill Academic, p. 20-23 ^ Kumar, Praveen. "Complete Indian History for IAS Exam Highly Recommended for IAS, PCS and other Competitive Exam" . p. 219. ^ André Wink (2020). "The Making of the Indo-Islamic World: C. 700–1800 CE" . Cambridge University Press. ISBN   9781108417747 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN ( link ) ^ Gurcharn Singh Sandhu (2003). "A Military History of Medieval India" . Vision Books. p. 247. ISBN   9788170945253 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN ( link ) ^ Debajyoti Burman (1947). "Indo-Muslim Relations: A Study in Historical Background" . Jugabani Sahitya Chakra. p. 36. ^ Dr. Aijaz Ahmad (2021). "History of Mewat" . Alina Books. p. 112. ISBN   9788193391426 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN ( link ) ^ "Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India Issues 52-54" . Archaeological Survey of India. 1937. p. 19. The old Firoz Shahi slaves, however, turned against Abu Bakr, who fled, and on their invitation Sultan Muhammad entered the city and took ^ Āg̲h̲ā Mahdī Ḥusain (1963). "Tughluq Dynasty" . Thacker, Spink. p. 444. ^ a b Smith 1920 , pp. 248–254. ^ Jackson 1999 , pp. 312–317. ^ Beatrice F. Manz (2000). "Tīmūr Lang". In P. J. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C. E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W. P. Heinrichs (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam . Vol. 10 (2 ed.). Brill Publishers . ^ Lionel Trotter (1906), History of India: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day, Gorham Publishers London/New York, p. 74 ^ Annemarie Schimmel (1997), Islam in the Indian Subcontinent, Brill Academic, ISBN   978-9004061170 , p. 36-37; Also see: Elliot, Studies in Indian History, 2nd ed., p. 98-101 ^ Jayapalan, N. (2001). "History of India" . Atlantic Publishers & Distri. pp.  50– 51. ISBN   978-81-7156-928-1 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN ( link ) ^ Gipson, Therlee (2019). "India's Struggle" . Lulu.com. p. 15. ISBN   978-0-359-59732-1 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN ( link ) ^ a b c Annemarie Schimmel, Islam in the Indian Subcontinent, ISBN   978-9004061170 , Brill Academic, Chapter 2 ^ Schwartzberg 1978 , pp. 39, 148. ^ The Cambridge History of India: Turks and Afghans, edited by W. Haig . S. Chand. 1958. The claim of Khizr Khān, who founded the dynasty known as the Sayyids, to descent from the prophet of Arabia was dubious, and rested chiefly on its causal recognition by the famous saint Sayyid Jalāl-ud-dīn of Bukhārā. ^ Eraly, Abraham (2015). The Age of Wrath: A History of the Delhi Sultanate . Penguin UK. p. 261. ISBN   978-93-5118-658-8 . The first of these two dynasties was founded by Khizr Khan, who bore the appellation "Sayyid", which identified him as a descendant of prophet Muhammad, so the dynasty he founded came to be known as the Sayyid dynasty. The veracity of Khizr Khan's claimed lineage is uncertain, but his forebears were likely Arabs who had migrated to India in the early Tughluq period and settled in Multan. The family prospered in India, gaining wealth and power. This advancement culminated in Malik Suleiman, Khizr Khan's father, becoming the governor of Multan under the Tughluqs. When Suleiman died, Khizr Khan succeeded him in the post but lost it during the political turmoil following the death of Firuz Tughluq. ^ Srivastava 1929 , p. 229, "their claim of Descendants of Prophet Mohammad is dubious but it seems certain that Khizr Khan's ancestors came from Arabia". ^ Digby, Simon (13 October 2014), After Timur Left: North India in the Fifteenth Century , Oxford University Press , pp.  47– 59, doi : 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199450664.003.0002 , ISBN   978-0-19-945066-4 , retrieved 25 January 2023 , And we find that a Khokhar chieftain, Khizr Khan who was sent to Timur as an ambassador and negotiator from the most adjacent area, the Punjab, ultimately became the power holder in Delhi, thanks to the contacts he had aquired [ sic ]. ^ Eaton 2020 , "The career of Khizr Khan, a Punjabi chieftain belonging to the Khokar clan, illustrates the transition to an increasingly polycentric north India.". ^ V. D. Mahajan (2007). History of Medieval India . S. Chand. p. 239. ISBN   9788121903646 . ^ a b Eaton 2020 , p. 108. ^ Schwartzberg 1978 , p. 147, map XIV.4 (d). ^ Hartel 1997 , p. 261. ^ Judith Walsh, A Brief History of India, ISBN   978-0816083626 , p. 81; Quote: "The last dynasty was founded by a Sayyid provincial governor, Bahlul Khan Lodi (r. 1451–1489). The Lodis were descended from Afghans, and under their rule, Afghans eclipsed Turks in court patronage." ^ Ramananda Chatterjee (1961). The Modern Review . Vol. 109. Indiana University . p. 84. ^ Lee, Jonathan (2019). Afghanistan: A History from 1260 to the Present . Reaktion Books. p. 56. ISBN   9781789140101 . In 1451 Bahlul Khan, a Khalji of the Lodhi clan, deposed the then sultan and founded a second Afghan sultanate, the Lodhi Dynasty, which ruled northern India for 75 years (1451–1526). ^ Digby, S. (1975), The Tomb of Buhlūl Lōdī, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 38(03), p. 550-561 ^ "Delhi Sultanate under Lodhi Dynasty: A Complete Overview" . Jagranjosh.com . 31 March 2017 . Retrieved 1 August 2020 . ^ a b Smith 1920 , pp. 253–257. ^ Andrew Petersen, Dictionary of Islamic Architecture, Routledge, ISBN   978-0415060844 , p. 7 ^ Richards, John (1965), The Economic History of the Lodi Period: 1451–1526, Journal de l'histoire économique et sociale de l'Orient, Vol. 8, No. 1, p. 47-67 ^ Lodi Dynasty Encyclopædia Britannica (2009) ^ Chandra, Satish (2005). Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals Part – II . Har-Anand Publications. pp.  30– 31. ISBN   978-81-241-1066-9 . Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page ). Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). Read more on Wikipedia →

Government and politics The historian Peter Jackson explains in The New Cambridge History of Islam : "The elite of the early Delhi sultanate comprised overwhelmingly first-generation immigrants from Iran and Central Asia : Persians , Turks , Ghūrīs , Khalaj from the hot regions ( garmsīr ) of modern Afghanistan ". [ 1 ] Political system Medieval scholars such as Abdul Malik Isami and Ziauddin Barani suggested that the prehistory of the Delhi Sultanate lay in the Ghaznavid state and that its ruler, Mahmud Ghaznavi, provided the foundation and inspiration integral to the making of the Delhi regime. The Mongol and Hindu monarchies were the great "Others" in these narratives and the Persianate and class-conscious, aristocratic virtues of the ideal state were creatively memorialised in the Ghaznavid state, now the templates for the Delhi Sultanate. Cast within a historical narrative, it allowed for a more self-reflective, linear rooting of the Sultanate in the great traditions of Muslim statecraft. [ 2 ] Over time, successive Muslim dynasties created a "centralized structure in the Persian tradition whose task was to mobilize human and material resources for the ongoing armed struggle against both Mongol and Hindu monarchies ". [ 3 ] The monarch was not the Sultan of the Hindus or of, say, the people of Haryana, rather in the eyes of the Sultanate's chroniclers, the Muslims constituted what in more recent times would be termed a "Staatsvolk". For many Muslim observers, the ultimate justification for any ruler within the Islamic world was the protection and advancement of the faith. For the Sultans, as for their Ghaznavid and Ghurid predecessors, this entailed the suppression of heterodox Muslims, and Firuz Shah attached some importance to the fact that he had acted against the ashab-i had-u ibadat (deviators and latitudinarians). It also involved plundering and extorting tribute from independent Hindu principalities. [ 4 ] Firuz Shah, who believed that India was changed into a Muslim nation, [ 5 ] declared that "no zimmi living in a Musalman country might dare to act". [ 6 ] The Hindu kingdoms who submitted to Islamic rule qualified as "protected peoples" according to the wide spectrum of the educated Muslim community within the subcontinent. The balance of the evidence is that in the latter half of the fourteenth century, if not before, the jizyah was levied as a discriminatory tax on non-Muslims, although even then it is difficult to see how such a measure could have been enforced outside the principal centres of Muslim authority. [ 7 ] The Delhi Sultanate also continued the governmental conventions of the previous Hindu polities, claiming paramountcy of some of its subjects rather than exclusive supreme control. Accordingly, it did not interfere with the autonomy and military of certain conquered Hindu rulers and freely included Hindu vassals and officials. [ 8 ] Economic policy and administration Main article: Market reforms of Alauddin Khalji Coin of Ghiyath al-Din 'Iwad , Governor of Bengal , AH 614–616 AD 1217–1220. Struck in the name of Shams al-Din Iltutmish , Sultan of Dehli. The economic policy of the Delhi Sultanate was characterised by greater government involvement in the economy relative to the Classical Hindu dynasties, and increased penalties for private businesses that broke government regulations. Alauddin Khalji replaced the private markets with four centralized government-run markets, appointed a "market controller", and implemented strict price controls [ 9 ] on all kinds of goods, "from caps to socks ; from combs to pins ; from vegetables to soups , from sweetmeats to chapatis " (according to Ziauddin Barani [c. 1357] [ 10 ] ). The price controls were inflexible even during droughts. [ 11 ] Capitalist investors were completely banned from participating in the horse trade, [ 12 ] animal and slave brokers were forbidden from collecting commissions, [ 13 ] and private merchants were eliminated from all animal and slave markets. [ 13 ] Bans were instituted against hoarding [ 14 ] and regrating , [ 15 ] granaries were nationalised [ 14 ] and limits were placed on the amount of grain that could be used by cultivators for personal use. [ 16 ] Various licensing rules were imposed. Registration of merchants was required, [ 17 ] and expensive goods such as certain fabrics were deemed "unnecessary" for the general public and required a permit from the state to be purchased. These licenses were issued to amirs , maliks , and other important persons in government. [ 13 ] Agricultural taxes were raised to 50%. Traders regarded the regulations as burdensome, and violations were severely punished, leading to further resentment among the traders. [ 10 ] A network of spies was instituted to ensure the implementation of the system; even after price controls were lifted after Khalji's death, Barani claims that the fear of his spies remained and that people continued to avoid trading in expensive commodities. [ 18 ] Social policies Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq leading his troops in the capture of the city of Tirhut in 1324, from Basātin al-uns by Ikhtisān-i Dabir , a member of the Tughluq court. Ca. 1410 Jalayirid copy of 1326 lost original. Istanbul, Topkapi Palace Museum Library, Ms R. 1032. [ 19 ] The sultanate enforced Islamic religious prohibitions on anthropomorphic representations in art. [ citation needed ] Military The army of the Delhi sultans initially consisted of nomadic Turkic Mamluk military slaves belonging to Muhammad of Ghor. The nucleus of this South Asian sultanate military was the Turco-Afghani regular units named Wajih , which were composed of elite household cavalry archers who came from slave backgrounds. [ 20 ] A major military contribution of the Delhi Sultanate was their successful campaigns repelling the Mongol Empire's invasions of India , which could have been devastating for the Indian subcontinent, like the Mongol invasions of China , Persia and Europe . Were it not for the Delhi Sultanate, the Mongol Empire may have been successful in invading India. [ 21 ] The strength of the armies changes according to time. Historians state the Delhi sultanate during the Khalji dynasty maintained 300 000 to 400 000 horse cavalry and 2500 to 3000 war elephant as a standing army. [ 22 ] [ 23 ] [ 24 ] [ 25 ] [ 26 ] [ 27 ] Its successor state, the Tughlaq dynasty further expanded into 500 000 horse cavalry in their force. [ 24 ] ^ Jackson, Peter (2010). "Muslim India: the Delhi sultanate". In Morgan, David O. ; Reid, Anthony (eds.). The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 3: The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 101. ISBN   978-0-521-85031-5 . ^ John F. Richards (2013). Expanding Frontiers in South Asian and World History . Cambridge University Press. p. 55. ISBN   9781107034280 . ^ John F. Richards (1993). Power, Administration, and Finance in Mughal India . Variorum. ISBN   9780860783664 . ^ Jackson 1999 , p. 278. ^ V. D. Mahajan (2007). History of Medieval India . S. Chand. p. 446. ISBN   9788121903646 . ^ Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society: Volume 45 . Pakistan Historical Society. 1997. p. 222. ^ Jackson 1999 , pp. 283–287. ^ Cite error: The named reference brt was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992 , pp. 379–380. ^ a b Satish Chandra 2007 , p. 105. ^ Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992 , p. 379. ^ Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992 , p. 385. ^ a b c Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992 , p. 384. ^ a b Satish Chandra 2007 , p. 102. ^ Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992 , p. 380. ^ Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992 , p. 389. ^ Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992 , p. 383. ^ Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992 , p. 386. ^ Cite error: The named reference Filiz Zeren was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Saikat K. Bose (2015). "And the Social Dynamics Behind South Asian Warfare". Boot, Hooves and Wheels . Vij Books India Private Limited. ISBN   9789384464547 . Retrieved 21 July 2023 . They had corps of regulars, the watch, formed primarily of mounted archers but which also had an advance reserve, the blemish, of lancers. The wajih had a nucleus of the elite khasakhail or household cavalry, composed largely of slaves. ^ Asher & Talbot 2008 , pp. 19, 50–51. ^ Ram Shankar Tripathi (1989). History of Kanauj To the Moslem Conquest . Motilal Banarsidass. p. 327. ISBN   9788120804784 . Retrieved 14 April 2024 . ^ Wilbraham Egerton, 1st Earl Egerton (2002). Indian and Oriental Arms and Armour . Dover Publications. ISBN   9780486422299 . Retrieved 14 April 2024 . ^ a b Simon Digby (1971). War-horse and Elephant in the Dehli Sultanate . Orient Monographs. p. 24. ISBN   9780903871006 . Retrieved 14 April 2024 . ^ Syed Zafar Haider (1991). Islamic Arms and Armour of Muslim India . Bahadur Publishers. p. 265. ISBN   9789698123000 . Retrieved 14 April 2024 . ^ Wilbraham Egerton, 1st Earl Egerton (1896). A Description of Indian and Oriental Armour Illustrated from the Collection Formerly in the India Office, Now Exhibited at South Kensington, and the Author's Private Collection, with a Map, Twenty-three Full-page Plates (two Coloured), and Numerous Woodcuts, with an Introductory Sketch of the Military History of India . W. H. Allen & Company, limited. p. 16 . Retrieved 14 April 2024 . ^ Kaushik Roy (2015). Warfare in Pre-British India – 1500BCE to 1740CE . Taylor & Francis. p. 219. ISBN   9781317586920 . Retrieved 14 April 2024 . Read more on Wikipedia →

Economy Main article: Economic history of India MOGHULISTAN PHAGMODRUPAS CHAM- PA SIBIR KHANATE CRIMEAN KHANATE LITHUANIA GRAND DUCHY KHAZAN KHANATE ASTRA- KHAN MUSCOVY NOGAIS KAZAKH KHANATE MING DYNASTY FOUR OIRATS NORTHERN YUAN AQ QOYUNLU VIJAYA- NAGARA BUKHARA KHANATE TIMURID EMPIRE DELHI SULTANATE Tungus AVA LAN XANG OTTOMAN EMPIRE MAMLUK SULTANATE JO- SEON MALACCA The Delhi Sultanate and main other polities circa 1500 Transportation of the Delhi-Topra pillar to Delhi. Sirat i- Firuz Shahi , 14th century illustration. [ 1 ] Some historians argue that the Delhi Sultanate was responsible for making India more multicultural and cosmopolitan. The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in India has been compared to the expansion of the Mongol Empire and called "part of a larger trend occurring throughout much of Eurasia, in which nomadic people migrated from the steppes of Inner Asia and became politically dominant". [ 2 ] According to Angus Maddison , between the years 1000 and 1500, India's GDP , of which the sultanates represented a significant part, grew nearly 8% to $60.5 billion in 1500. Though the overall the percentage of the GDP share reduced from 33% to 22% [ 3 ] According to Maddison's estimates, India's population grew from 85 million in 1200 to 101 million in 1500. [ 4 ] The Delhi Sultanate period coincided with more use of mechanical technology in the Indian subcontinent. [ 5 ] India previously already had highly sophisticated agriculture, food crops, textiles, medicine, minerals, and metals. [ 5 ] Water wheels also previously existed in India, as described by various Chinese monks and Arab travellers and writers in their books. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] [ note 1 ] During the Delhi Sultanate, various mechanical devices were introduced from the Islamic world to India, such as geared water-raising wheels and other machines with gears, pulleys , cams , and cranks . [ 5 ] Later, Mughal emperor Babur provided a description on the use of water wheels in the Delhi Sultanate. [ 12 ] According to historians Arnold Pacey and Irfan Habib , the spinning wheel was introduced to India from Iran during the Delhi Sultanate. [ 13 ] Smith and Cothren suggested that it was invented in India during the latter half of the first millennium, [ 14 ] but Pacey and Habib said these early references to cotton spinning do not identify a wheel, but more likely refer to hand spinning . [ 13 ] The earliest unambiguous reference to a spinning wheel in India is dated to 1350. [ 13 ] The worm gear roller cotton gin was invented in the thirteenth or fourteenth centuries; Habib states that the development may likely occurred in peninsular India, before becoming more widespread across India during the Mughal era. [ 15 ] The incorporation of the crank handle in the cotton gin may have appeared sometime during the late Delhi Sultanate or the early Mughal Empire. [ 16 ] India and China have connections throughout thousands of years of history. Paper had already reached some parts of India as early as the 6th or 7th century, [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] initially through Chinese travellers and the ancient silk road which India was very well connected with. Earlier some historians believed that paper failed to catch on as palmyra leaves and birch bark remained far more popular but this theory was discredited later on. [ 20 ] [ 21 ] [ 22 ] [ 23 ] On the other hand, the paper may have arrived in Bengal from a separate route, as 15th-century Chinese traveller Ma Huan remarked that Bengali paper was white and made from "bark of a tree" similar to the Chinese method of papermaking (as opposed to the Middle-Eastern method of using rags and waste material), suggesting a direct route from China for the arrival of paper in Bengal and paper was already very well established and widespread in that part of the subcontinent. [ 23 ] ^ Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India No. 52 a Memoir on Kotla Firoz, Delhi . p. 58. ^ Asher & Talbot 2008 , pp. 50–52. ^ Madison, Angus (2007). Contours of the world economy, 1–2030 AD: essays in macro-economic history . Oxford University Press. p. 379. ISBN   978-0-19-922720-4 . ^ Maddison (27 July 2016). "Growth of World Population, GDP and GDP Per Capita before 1820" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 February 2021 . Retrieved 9 May 2023 . ^ a b c Pacey, Arnold (1991) [1990]. Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-Year History (First MIT Press ed.). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. pp.  26– 29. ^ Al-, Biruni (1888). Alberuni's India: an Account of the religion, philosophy, literature, geography, chronology, astronomy, customs, laws and astrology of India about A.D. 1030. An English Edition, with Notes and Indices by Edward C. Sachau . Trübner & Co. OCLC   162833441 . ^ Siddiqui, Iqtidar Hussain (1986). "Water Works and Irrigation System in India during Pre-Mughal Times". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient . 29 (1): 63– 64. doi : 10.2307/3632072 . JSTOR   3632072 . ^ Pacey 1991 , p. 10. ^ Oleson, John Peter (2000), "Water-Lifting", in Wikander, Örjan (ed.), Handbook of Ancient Water Technology , Technology and Change in History, vol. 2, Leiden, South Holland: Brill, pp.  217– 302, ISBN   978-90-04-11123-3 ^ Pacey 1991 , p. 36. ^ Srivastava, Vinod Chanda; Gopal, Lallanji (2008). History of Agriculture in India, Up to C. 1200 A.D . New Delhi: Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy and Culture. ISBN   978-81-8069-521-6 . ^ Jos Gommans ; Harriet Zurndorfer, eds. (2008). Roots and Routes of Development in China and India: Highlights of Fifty Years of The Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient (1957–2007) . Leiden, South Holland: Koninklijke Brill NV. p. 444. ISBN   978-90-04-17060-5 . ^ a b c Pacey 1991 , pp. 23–24. ^ Smith, C. Wayne; Cothren, J. Tom (1999). Cotton: Origin, History, Technology, and Production . Vol. 4. John Wiley & Sons. p. viii. ISBN   978-0471180456 . Archived from the original on 1 April 2017 . Retrieved 15 March 2020 . The first improvement in spinning technology was the spinning wheel, which was invented in India between 500 and 1000 A.D. ^ Habib, Irfan (2011). Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500 . Pearson Education. p. 53. ISBN   9788131727911 . ^ Habib 2011 , p.  53-54 . ^ Harrison, Frederick. A Book about Books . London: John Murray, 1943. p. 79. Mandl, George. "Paper Chase: A Millennium in the Production and Use of Paper". Myers, Robin & Michael Harris (eds). A Millennium of the Book: Production, Design & Illustration in Manuscript & Print, 900–1900 . Winchester: St. Paul's Bibliographies, 1994. p. 182. Mann, George. Print: A Manual for Librarians and Students Describing in Detail the History, Methods, and Applications of Printing and Paper Making . London: Grafton & Co., 1952. p. 79. McMurtrie, Douglas C., The Book: The Story of Printing & Bookmaking . London: Oxford University Press, 1943, p. 63. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985), Joseph Needham (ed.), Paper and Printing , Science and Civilisation in China, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, vol. 5, Cambridge University Press, pp.  2– 3, 356– 357 ^ Wilkinson, Endymion (2012), Chinese History: A New Manual , Harvard University Asia Center for the Harvard-Yenching Institute, p. 909 ^ Kurlansky, Mark (2017). Paper: paging through history . National Geographic Books. ISBN   978-0-393-35370-9 . OCLC   1119136572 . ^ D. C. Sircar (1996). Indian Epigraphy . Motilal Banarsidass. pp.  67– 68. ISBN   978-81-208-1166-9 . ^ Habib 2011 , p. 96. ^ a b Habib 2011 , pp. 95–96. Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page ). Read more on Wikipedia →

Decline Cities While the sacking of cities was not uncommon in medieval warfare, the army of the Delhi Sultanate also often destroyed cities in its military expeditions. According to Jain chronicler Jinaprabha Suri, Nusrat Khan's conquests destroyed hundreds of towns including Ashapalli (modern-day Ahmedabad ), Anhilvad (modern-day Patan ), Vanthali and Surat in Gujarat. [ 1 ] This account is corroborated by Ziauddin Barani . [ 2 ] Battles and massacres Ghiyas ud din Balban wiped out the Rajputs of Mewar and Awadh , killing approximately 100,000 people. [ 3 ] Alauddin Khalji ordered the killing of 30,000 people at Chittor . [ 4 ] Alauddin Khalji ordered the killing Brahmins during his raid on Devagiri . [ 5 ] According to a hymn, Muhammad bin Tughlaq is said to have killed 12,000 Hindu ascetics during the sacking of Srirangam . [ 6 ] Firuz Shah Tughlaq killed 180,000 people during his invasion of Odisha . [ 7 ] Desecration Jordan Catala was a contemporary European witness of the destructions by the "Turkish Saracens" in India (extract from Mirabilia Descripta , written in 1329–1338). [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Historian Richard Eaton has tabulated a campaign of destruction of idols and temples by the Delhi Sultans, intermixed with certain years where the temples were protected from desecration. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 12 ] In his paper, he has listed 37 instances of Hindu temples being desecrated or destroyed in India during the Delhi Sultanate, from 1234 to 1518, for which reasonable evidences are available. [ 13 ] [ 14 ] [ 15 ] He notes that this was not unusual in medieval India, as there were numerous recorded instances of temple desecration by Hindu and Buddhist kings against rival Indian kingdoms between 642 and 1520, involving conflict between devotees of different Hindu deities, as well as between Hindus, Buddhists and Jains at small scales. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] [ 18 ] He also noted there were also many instances of Delhi sultans, who often had Hindu ministers, ordering the protection, maintenance and repairing of temples, according to both Muslim and Hindu sources. For example, a Sanskrit inscription notes that Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq repaired a Shiva and Parvati temple in Bidar after his Deccan conquest. There was often a pattern of Delhi sultans plundering or damaging temples during the conquest and then patronising or repairing temples after the conquest. This pattern came to an end with the Mughal Empire, where Akbar 's chief minister Abu'l-Fazl criticised the excesses of earlier sultans such as Mahmud of Ghazni. [ 13 ] In the majority of cases, the demolished remains, rocks and broken statue pieces of temples destroyed by Delhi sultans were reused to build mosques and other buildings. For example, the Qutb complex in Delhi was built from stones from 27 demolished Hindu and Jain temples by some accounts. [ 19 ] Similarly, the Muslim mosque in Khanapur , Maharashtra was built from the looted parts and demolished remains of Hindu temples. [ 20 ] The first historical record of a campaign of destruction of temples and defacement of faces or heads of Hindu idols lasted from 1193 to 1194 in Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh under the command of Ghuri. Under the Mamluks and Khaljis, the campaign of temple desecration expanded to Bihar, Madhya Pradesh , Gujarat and Maharashtra, and continued through the late 13th century. [ 10 ] The campaign extended to Andhra Pradesh , Karnataka and Tamil Nadu under Malik Kafur and Ulugh Khan in the 14th century, and by the Bahmanis in the 15th century. [ 21 ] [ failed verification ] Orissa temples were destroyed in the 14th century under the Tughlaqs. Beyond destruction and desecration, the sultans of the Delhi Sultanate in some cases had forbidden the reconstruction or repair of damaged Hindu, Jain and Buddhist temples. In certain cases, the Sultanate would grant a permit for repairs and construction of temples if the patron or religious community paid jizya (fee, tax). For example, a proposal by the Chinese to repair Himalayan Buddhist temples destroyed by the Sultanate army was refused, because such temple repairs were only allowed if the Chinese agreed to pay jizya tax to the treasury of the Sultanate. [ 22 ] [ 23 ] [ 24 ] According to Eva De Clercq, an expert in the study of Jainism, the Delhi Sultans did not strictly prohibit construction of new temples in the sultanate, Islamic law notwithstanding. [ 25 ] In his memoirs, Firoz Shah Tughlaq describes how he destroyed temples and built mosques instead and killed those who dared build new temples. [ 26 ] Other historical records from wazirs , amirs and the court historians of various Sultans of the Delhi Sultanate describe the grandeur of idols and temples they witnessed in their campaigns and how these were destroyed and desecrated. [ 27 ] Iconoclasm under the Delhi Sultanate The Somnath Temple in Gujarat was repeatedly destroyed by Delhi Sultanate armies and rebuilt by Chaulukya armies. It was destroyed by the Delhi Sultanate's army in 1299 and was rebuilt afterwards. [ 29 ] The Kashi Vishwanath Temple was destroyed by Muhammad of Ghor along with thousand other temples in Varanasi . [ 30 ] The armies of the Delhi Sultanate led by their Delhi Sultanate commander Malik Kafur demolished and plundered the Meenakshi Temple of Madurai and looted it of all its wealth. [ 31 ] [ 32 ] [ 33 ] Kakatiya Kala Thoranam (Warangal Gate) built by the Kakatiya dynasty in ruins; one of the many temple complexes destroyed by the Delhi Sultanate. [ 10 ] Rani ki Vav is a stepwell , built by the Chaulukya dynasty , located in Patan ; the city was sacked by Sultan of Delhi Qutb ud-Din Aibak between 1200 and 1210, and again by the Allauddin Khalji in 1298. [ 34 ] Artistic rendition of the Kirtistambha at Rudra Mahalaya Temple . The temple was destroyed by Alauddin Khalji . [ 35 ] Exterior wall reliefs at Hoysaleshvara Temple . The temple was twice sacked and plundered by the Delhi Sultanate. [ 36 ] ^ Lal 1950 , p. 85. ^ Lal 1950 , p. 86. ^ Hunter, W. W. (2013). The Indian Empire: Its People, History and Products . Routledge. p. 280. ISBN   9781136383014 . ^ Barua, Pradeep (2005). "The State at War in South Asia" . University of Nebraska Press. pp. 30, 317. ISBN   0803213441 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN ( link ) ^ Lal 1950 , p. 55. ^ Hopkins, Steven Paul (18 April 2002). "Singing the Body of God: The Hymns of Vedantadesika in Their South Indian Tradition" . Oxford University Press. p. 69. ISBN   9780198029304 . {{ cite news }} : CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN ( link ) ^ Rummel, R. J. (2011). Death by Government . Transaction Publishers . p. 60. ISBN   9781412821292 . ^ Jordanus, Catalani; Yule, Henry; Parr, Charles McKew donor; Parr, Ruth (1863). "Mirabilia descripta: the wonders of the East" . Printed for the Hakluyt Society. p. 23. ^ Juncu, Meera (2015). India in the Italian Renaissance: Visions of a Contemporary Pagan World 1300–1600 . Routledge. p. 85. ISBN   978-1-317-44768-9 . ^ a b c d Cite error: The named reference re2000 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Richard M. Eaton, Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States , Part II, Frontline , 5 January 2001, 70-77. [1] ^ Richard M. Eaton, Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States , Part I, Frontline , 22 December 2000, 62-70. [2] ^ a b Eaton, Richard M. (2000). "Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States" (PDF) . The Hindu . Chennai, India. p. 297. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 January 2014. ^ Annemarie Schimmel , Islam in the Indian Subcontinent, ISBN   978-9004061170 , Brill Academic, p. 7-10. ^ James Brown (1949), The History of Islam in India, The Muslim World, 39(1), 11-25 ^ Eaton, Richard M. (December 2000). "Temple desecration in pre-modern India" . Frontline . 17 (25). The Hindu Group . ^ Eaton, Richard M. (September 2000). "Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States". Journal of Islamic Studies . 11 (3): 283– 319. doi : 10.1093/jis/11.3.283 . ^ Eaton, Richard M. (2004). Temple desecration and Muslim states in medieval India . Gurgaon: Hope India Publications. ISBN   978-8178710273 . ^ Welch, Anthony (1993), Architectural patronage and the past: The Tughluq sultans of India, Muqarnas, Vol. 10, 311-322 ^ Cite error: The named reference awhc was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference regbook was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Srivastava 1929 . ^ R. Islam (2002), Theory and Practice of Jizyah in the Delhi Sultanate (14th Century), Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society, 50, p. 7-18 ^ Jackson 2003 , pp. 287–295. ^ Eva De Clercq (2010), ON JAINA APABHRAṂŚA PRAŚASTIS, Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hung. Volume 63 (3), p. 275-287 ^ Cite error: The named reference fst377381 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Hasan Nizami et al., Taju-l Ma-asir & Appendix , Translated in 1871 by Elliot and Dawson, Volume 2 – The History of India, Cornell University Archives, p. 22, 219, 398, 471 ^ Richard Eaton, Temple desecration and Indo-Muslim states, Frontline (5 January 2001), p. 72-73 ^ Eaton (2000), Temple desecration in pre-modern India Frontline, p. 73, item 16 of the Table, Archived by Columbia University ^ Andre Wink (1991). Al-Hind the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: The Slave Kings and the Islamic Conquest: 11th–13th Centuries . Brill. p. 333. ISBN   9004102361 . We do not know much about the first Muslim raid on Benares, by Ahmad Nayaltigin in 1033 AD, which appears merely to have been a plundering expedition. When Muhammad Ghuri marched on the city, we are merely told that after breaking the idols in above 1000 temples, he purified and consecrated the latter to the worship of the true God ^ Carl W. Ernst (2004). Eternal Garden: Mysticism, History, and Politics at a South Asian Sufi Center . Oxford University Press. p. 109. ISBN   978-0-19-566869-8 . ^ Sarojini Chaturvedi (2006). A short history of South India . Saṁskṛiti. p. 209. ISBN   978-81-87374-37-4 . ^ Abraham Eraly (2015). The Age of Wrath: A History of the Delhi Sultanate . Penguin Books. pp.  155– 156. ISBN   978-93-5118-658-8 . ^ Lal 1950 , p. 84. ^ Burgess; Murray (1874). "The Rudra Mala at Siddhpur" . Photographs of Architecture and Scenery in Gujarat and Rajputana . Bourne and Shepherd. p. 19 . Retrieved 23 July 2016 . ^ Robert Bradnock; Roma Bradnock (2000). India Handbook . McGraw-Hill. p. 959. ISBN   978-0-658-01151-1 . Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page ). Read more on Wikipedia →