Hellenistic period

Background See also: Philip II of Macedon , Alexander the Great , and Wars of Alexander the Great Alexander fighting the Persian king Darius III . From the Alexander Mosaic , Naples National Archaeological Museum Early life Education Personal relationships Early rule Consolidation of power Balkan campaign Pelium Thebes Conquest of the Persian Empire Asia Minor Granicus Halicarnassus Syria Issus Tyre Egypt Gaza Mesopotamia Gaugamela Persia Persian Gate Persepolis Bactria Cyropolis Sogdian Rock Expedition into India Indian campaigns Cophen Aornos Hydaspes Mallian Death and legacy Death Tomb Hellenistic period Cities Cult Cultural impact Legends Alexander Romance Historiography Anabasis Chronology Cultural depictions Horns Islamic world v t e Ancient Greece was a patchwork of independent city-states and kingdoms. After the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC), Sparta held a hegemony that was later displaced by Thebes following the Battle of Leuctra (371 BC). The indecisive outcome at the Battle of Mantinea (362 BC) left the Greek world fragmented, creating conditions in which the northern Greek kingdom of Macedon rose to predominance under king Philip II . Macedon lay on the geographical periphery of the Greek world. Some contemporaries in the southern poleis disparaged it as less urbanised, although the royal Argead dynasty traced Greek descent. The kingdom controlled a large territory and possessed a comparatively strong centralised monarchy, unlike most poleis. [ 1 ] Philip II pursued expansion wherever opportunity allowed. In 352 BC he annexed Thessaly and Magnesia . In 338 BC he defeated a combined Theban and Athenian army at the Battle of Chaeronea after a decade of intermittent conflict. In the aftermath Philip formed the League of Corinth , bringing most of Greece under his leadership. He was elected Hegemon of the League, and a campaign against the Achaemenid Empire was planned. In 336 BC, while preparations were under way, he was assassinated. [ 2 ] Alexander's empire at the time of its maximum expansion Succeeding his father, Alexander took command of the Persian war. Over a decade of campaigning he overthrew the Achaemenid Empire and the king Darius III . The conquered lands included Asia Minor , Assyria , the Levant , Egypt , Mesopotamia , Media , Persia , and parts of modern Afghanistan , Pakistan , and the central Asian steppes . The strain of continuous campaigning was severe, and Alexander died in 323 BC. After his death, the territories he had conquered experienced sustained Greek cultural influence ( Hellenisation ) for the next two or three centuries, until the rise of the Roman Empire in the west and the Parthian Empire in the east. As Greek and Levantine cultures interacted, a hybrid Hellenistic culture developed and persisted even when far from the principal Greek centres, for example in the Greco-Bactrian kingdom . Scholars note that not all changes across the former empire can be attributed solely to Greek rule. As Peter Green observes, diverse phenomena of conquest are often grouped under the term Hellenistic period. In several regions, including Egypt and parts of Asia Minor and Mesopotamia , Alexander was sometimes received as a liberator rather than as a mere conqueror. [ 3 ] In the subsequent era, much of the area continued under the Diadochi , Alexander’s generals and successors. The empire was initially divided among them, though some territories were quickly lost or only nominally acknowledged Macedonian authority. After about two centuries, the remaining successor states were much reduced, culminating in the Roman conquest of Ptolemaic Egypt. [ 4 ] ^ Bury, p. 684. [ full citation needed ] ^ Green, Peter (2008). Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic Age . London: Orion. ISBN   978-0-7538-2413-9 . ^ Cite error: The named reference autogenerated2007 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference ReferenceC was invoked but never defined (see the help page ).

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Rise of Rome King Perseus of Macedon in front of Aemilius Paulus by Jean-François Pierre Peyron , 1802 ( Museum of Fine Arts , Budapest ) Widespread Roman interference in the Greek world was probably inevitable given the general manner of the ascendancy of the Roman Republic . This Roman-Greek interaction began as a consequence of the Greek city-states located along the coast of southern Italy. Rome had come to dominate the Italian peninsula, and desired the submission of the Greek cities to its rule. Although they initially resisted, allying themselves with Pyrrhus of Epirus , and defeating the Romans at several battles, the Greek cities were unable to maintain this position and were absorbed by the Roman republic. Shortly afterward, Rome became involved in Sicily, fighting against the Carthaginians in the First Punic War . The result was the complete conquest of Sicily, including its previously powerful Greek cities, by the Romans. [ 1 ] After the Second Punic War , the Romans looked to re-assert their influence in the Balkans, and to curb the expansion of Philip V of Macedon . A pretext for war was provided by Philip's refusal to end his war with Attalid Pergamum and Rhodes , both Roman allies. [ 2 ] The Romans, also allied with the Aetolian League of Greek city-states (which resented Philip's power), thus declared war on Macedon in 200 BC, starting the Second Macedonian War . This ended with a decisive Roman victory at the Battle of Cynoscephalae (197 BC). [ 3 ] Like most Roman peace treaties of the period, the resultant 'Peace of Flaminius' was designed utterly to crush the power of the defeated party; a massive indemnity was levied, Philip's fleet was surrendered to Rome, and Macedon was effectively returned to its ancient boundaries, losing influence over the city-states of southern Greece, and land in Thrace and Asia Minor. The result was the end of Macedon as a major power in the Mediterranean. [ 4 ] In less than twenty years, Rome had destroyed the power of one of the successor states, crippled another, and firmly entrenched its influence over Greece. This was primarily a result of the over-ambition of the Macedonian kings, and their unintended provocation of Rome, though Rome was quick to exploit the situation. In another twenty years, the Macedonian kingdom was no more. Seeking to re-assert Macedonian power and Greek independence, Philip V's son Perseus incurred the wrath of the Romans, resulting in the Third Macedonian War (171–168 BC). [ 4 ] [ 5 ] Victorious, the Romans abolished the Macedonian kingdom, replacing it with four puppet republics until it was formally annexed as a Roman province after yet another rebellion under Andriscus . [ 6 ] Rome now demanded that the Achaean League , the last stronghold of Greek independence, be dissolved. The Achaeans refused and declared war on Rome. Most of the Greek cities rallied to the Achaeans' side, even slaves were freed to fight for Greek independence. [ 7 ] The Roman consul Lucius Mummius advanced from Macedonia and defeated the Greeks at Corinth , which was razed to the ground. In 146 BC, the Greek peninsula, though not the islands, became a Roman protectorate. Roman taxes were imposed, except in Athens and Sparta, and all the cities had to accept rule by Rome's local allies. [ 8 ] The Roman Republic and contemporary polities in 100 BC The Attalid dynasty of Pergamum lasted little longer; a Roman ally until the end, its final king Attalus III died in 133 BC without an heir, and taking the alliance to its natural conclusion, willed Pergamum to the Roman Republic. [ 9 ] The final Greek resistance came in 88 BC, when King Mithridates of Pontus rebelled against Rome, captured Roman held Anatolia, and massacred up to 100,000 Romans and Roman allies across Asia Minor. Many Greek cities, including Athens, overthrew their Roman puppet rulers and joined him in the Mithridatic wars . When he was driven out of Greece by the Roman general Lucius Cornelius Sulla , the latter laid siege to Athens and razed the city. Mithridates was finally defeated by Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey the Great) in 65 BC. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] Further ruin was brought to Greece by the Roman civil wars, which were partly fought in Greece. Finally, in 27 BC, Augustus directly annexed Greece to the new Roman Empire as the province of Achaea . The struggles with Rome had left Greece depopulated and demoralised. [ 12 ] Nevertheless, Roman rule at least brought an end to warfare, and cities such as Athens, Corinth, Thessaloniki and Patras soon recovered their prosperity. [ 8 ] [ 13 ] Eventually, instability in the near east resulting from the power vacuum left by the collapse of the Seleucid Empire caused the Roman proconsul Pompey the Great to abolish the Seleucid rump state, absorbing much of Syria into the Roman Republic. [ 9 ] Famously, the end of Ptolemaic Egypt came as the final act in the republican civil war between the Roman triumvirs Mark Anthony and Augustus Caesar . After the defeat of Anthony and his lover, the last Ptolemaic monarch, Cleopatra VII , at the Battle of Actium , Augustus invaded Egypt and took it as his own personal fiefdom. [ 9 ] He thereby completed the destruction of the Hellenistic kingdoms and transformed the Roman Republic into a monarchy, ending (in hindsight) the Hellenistic era. [ 14 ] ^ "Roman Conquest: Magna Graecia 350–270 BC" , Rome and the Western Greeks, 350 BC - AD 200 , Routledge, 2005-08-18, pp.  49– 66, doi : 10.4324/9780203974582-9 , ISBN   978-0-203-97458-2 , retrieved 2024-07-15 ^ Green, P (2008). Alexander The Great and the Hellenistic Age . Phoenix. pp.  102 –103. ISBN   978-0-7538-2413-9 . ^ Widacki, Michał (2017-12-01). "Tuvya Amsel, Practicing Polygraph, best practice guide, CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, North Charleston, 2017" . European Polygraph . 11 (4): 183– 186. doi : 10.1515/ep-2017-0018 . ISSN   1898-5238 . ^ a b Burton, Paul J. (2017-09-29). Rome and the Third Macedonian War . Cambridge University Press. doi : 10.1017/9781316221631 . ISBN   978-1-316-22163-1 . ^ Wrightson, Graham (2024-01-30). The Third Macedonian War and Battle of Pydna: Perseus' Neglect of Combined-arms Tactics and the Real Reasons for the Roman Victory . Pen and Sword Military. ISBN   978-1-5267-9353-9 . ^ Matyszak, Philip (2010-03-10). Roman Conquests: Macedonia and Greece . Casemate Publishers. ISBN   978-1-84884-950-1 . ^ Gruen, Erich S. (1986-09-25). The Hellenistic World and the Coming of Rome . University of California Press. ISBN   978-0-520-05737-1 . ^ a b Cartledge, Paul; Spawforth, Antony (2020-09-23). Hellenistic and Roman Sparta . Routledge. ISBN   978-1-000-15904-2 . ^ a b c Holland, T (2004). Rubicon: Triumph and Tragedy in the Roman Republic . Abacus. ISBN   978-0-349-11563-4 . ^ Mayor, Adrienne (2010). The Poison King: The Life and Legend of Mithradates, Rome's Deadliest Enemy . Princeton University Press. ISBN   978-0-691-12683-8 . ^ Roller, Duane W. (2020). Empire of the Black Sea: The Rise and Fall of the Mithridatic World . Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-088784-1 . ^ Waterfield, Robin (2014). Taken at the Flood: The Roman Conquest of Greece . Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-965646-2 . ^ Worthington, Ian (2020). Athens After Empire: A History from Alexander the Great to the Emperor Hadrian . Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-063398-1 . ^ Errington, R. Malcolm (2011-08-26). A History of the Hellenistic World: 323 - 30 BC . John Wiley & Sons. ISBN   978-1-4443-5959-6 .

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Hellenistic culture Spread Statuette of Nike , Greek goddess of victory, from Vani , Georgia Greek culture was at its height of world influence in the Hellenistic period. Hellenism or at least Philhellenism reached most regions on the frontiers of the Hellenistic kingdoms. Though some of these regions were not ruled by Greeks or even Greek speaking elites, Hellenistic influence can be seen in the historical record and material culture of these regions. Other regions had established contact with Greek colonies before this period, and simply saw a continued process of Hellenization and intermixing. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] The spread of Greek culture and language throughout the Near East and Asia owed much to the development of newly founded cities and deliberate colonization policies by the successor states, which in turn was necessary for maintaining their military forces. Settlements such as Ai-Khanoum , on trade routes, allowed Greek culture to mix and spread. The language of Philip II's and Alexander's court and army (which was made up of various Greek and non-Greek speaking peoples) was a version of Attic Greek , and over time this language developed into Koine , the lingua franca of the successor states. The spread of Greek influence and language is also shown through ancient Greek coinage . Portraits became more realistic, and the obverse of the coin was often used to display a propagandistic image, commemorating an event or displaying the image of a favored god. The use of Greek-style portraits and Greek language continued under the Roman, Parthian , and Kushan empires , even as the use of Greek was in decline. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] Institutions In some fields Hellenistic culture thrived, particularly in its preservation of the past. The states of the Hellenistic period were deeply fixated with the past and its seemingly lost glories. [ 5 ] The preservation of many classical and archaic works of art and literature (including the works of the three great classical tragedians, Aeschylus , Sophocles , and Euripides ) are due to the efforts of the Hellenistic Greeks. The Mouseion and Library of Alexandria were the center of this conservationist activity. With the support of royal stipends, Alexandrian scholars collected, translated, copied, classified, and critiqued every book they could find. Most of the great literary figures of the Hellenistic period studied at Alexandria and conducted research there. They were scholar poets, writing not only poetry but treatises on Homer and other archaic and classical Greek literature. [ 6 ] Athens retained its position as the most prestigious seat of higher education, especially in the domains of philosophy and rhetoric, with considerable libraries and philosophical schools. [ 7 ] Alexandria had the monumental Mouseion (a research center) and Library of Alexandria , with an estimated collection of 500,000 or more volumes. [ 7 ] The city of Pergamon also had a large library and became a major center of book production. [ 7 ] The island of Rhodes had a library and also boasted a famous finishing school for politics and diplomacy. Libraries were also present in Antioch , Pella , and Kos . Cicero was educated in Athens and Mark Antony in Rhodes. [ 7 ] Antioch was founded as a metropolis and center of Greek learning which retained its status into the era of Christianity . [ 7 ] Seleucia replaced Babylon as the metropolis of the lower Tigris . The identification of local gods with similar Greek deities, a practice termed ' Interpretatio graeca ', stimulated the building of Greek-style temples, and Greek culture in the cities meant that buildings such as gymnasia and theaters became common. Many cities maintained nominal autonomy while under the rule of the local king or satrap , and often had Greek-style institutions. Greek dedications, statues, architecture, and inscriptions have all been found. However, local cultures were not replaced, and mostly went on as before, but now with a new Greco-Macedonian or otherwise Hellenized elite. An example that shows the spread of Greek theater is Plutarch 's story of the death of Crassus , in which his head was taken to the Parthian court and used as a prop in a performance of The Bacchae . Theaters have also been found: for example, in Ai-Khanoum on the edge of Bactria , the theater has 35 rows – larger than the theater in Babylon . Hellenization and acculturation Further information: Hellenization One of the first representations of the Buddha , and an example of Greco-Buddhist art , 1st-2nd century AD, Gandhara : Standing Buddha (Tokyo National Museum) The concept of Hellenization, meaning the adoption of Greek culture in non-Greek regions, has long been controversial. Undoubtedly Greek influence did spread through the Hellenistic realms, but to what extent, and whether this was a deliberate policy or mere cultural diffusion, have been hotly debated. It seems likely that Alexander himself pursued policies which led to Hellenization, such as the foundations of new cities and Greek colonies. While it may have been a deliberate attempt to spread Greek culture (or as Arrian says, "to civilise the natives"), it is more likely that it was a series of pragmatic measures designed to aid in the rule of his enormous empire. [ 8 ] Cities and colonies were centers of administrative control and Macedonian power in a newly conquered region. Alexander also seems to have attempted to create a mixed Greco-Persian elite class as shown by the Susa weddings and his adoption of some forms of Persian dress and court culture. He also brought Persian and other non-Greek peoples into his military and even the elite cavalry units of the companion cavalry . Again, it is probably better to see these policies as a pragmatic response to the demands of ruling a large empire [ 8 ] than to any idealized attempt to bringing Greek culture to the ' barbarians '. This approach was bitterly resented by the Macedonians and discarded by most of the Diadochi after Alexander's death. These policies can also be interpreted as the result of Alexander's possible megalomania [ 9 ] during his later years. After Alexander's death in 323 BC, the influx of Greek colonists into the new realms continued to spread Greek culture into Asia. The founding of new cities and military colonies continued to be a major part of the Successors' struggle for control of any particular region, and these continued to be centers of cultural diffusion. The spread of Greek culture under the Successors seems mostly to have occurred with the spreading of Greeks themselves, rather than as an active policy. Throughout the Hellenistic world, these Greco-Macedonian colonists considered themselves by and large superior to the native "barbarians" and excluded most non-Greeks from the upper echelons of courtly and government life. Most of the native population was not Hellenized, had little access to Greek culture and often found themselves discriminated against by their Hellenic overlords. [ 10 ] Gymnasiums and their Greek education, for example, were for Greeks only. Greek cities and colonies may have exported Greek art and architecture as far as the Indus , but these were mostly enclaves of Greek culture for the transplanted Greek elite . The degree of influence that Greek culture had throughout the Hellenistic kingdoms was therefore highly localized and based mostly on a few great cities like Alexandria and Antioch. Some natives did learn Greek and adopt Greek ways, but this was mostly limited to a few local elites who were allowed to retain their posts by the Diadochi and also to a small number of mid-level administrators who acted as intermediaries between the Greek speaking upper class and their subjects. In the Seleucid Empire, for example, this group amounted to only 2.5 percent of the official class. [ 11 ] Hellenistic art nevertheless had a considerable influence on the cultures that had been affected by the Hellenistic expansion. As far as the Indian subcontinent, Hellenistic influence on Indian art was broad and far-reaching, and had effects for several centuries following the forays of Alexander the Great. Despite their initial reluctance, the Successors seem to have later deliberately naturalized themselves to their different regions, presumably in order to help maintain control of the population. [ 12 ] In the Ptolemaic kingdom, we find some Egyptianized Greeks by the 2nd century onwards. In the Indo-Greek kingdom we find kings who were converts to Buddhism (e.g., Menander ). The Greeks in the regions therefore gradually become 'localized', adopting local customs as appropriate. In this way, hybrid 'Hellenistic' cultures naturally emerged, at least among the upper echelons of society. The trends of Hellenization were therefore accompanied by Greeks adopting native ways over time, but this was widely varied by place and by social class. The farther away from the Mediterranean and the lower in social status, the more likely that a colonist was to adopt local ways, while the Greco-Macedonian elites and royal families usually remained thoroughly Greek and viewed most non-Greeks with disdain. It was not until Cleopatra VII that a Ptolemaic ruler bothered to learn the Egyptian language of their subjects. Religion Main article: Hellenistic religion Bust of Zeus-Ammon , a deity with attributes from Greek and Egyptian gods In the Hellenistic period, there was much continuity in Greek religion : the Greek gods continued to be worshiped, and the same rites were practiced as before. However the socio-political changes brought on by the conquest of the Persian empire and Greek emigration abroad meant that change also came to religious practices. This varied greatly by location. Athens, Sparta and most cities in the Greek mainland did not see much religious change or new gods (with the exception of the Egyptian Isis in Athens), [ 13 ] while the multi-ethnic Alexandria had a very varied group of gods and religious practices, including Egyptian, Jewish and Greek. Greek emigres brought their Greek religion everywhere they went, even as far as India and Afghanistan. Non-Greeks also had more freedom to travel and trade throughout the Mediterranean and in this period we can see Egyptian gods such as Serapis , and the Syrian gods Atargatis and Hadad , as well as a Jewish synagogue , all coexisting on the island of Delos alongside classical Greek deities. [ 14 ] A common practice was to identify Greek gods with native gods that had similar characteristics and this created new fusions like Zeus-Ammon, Aphrodite Hagne (a Hellenized Atargatis ) and Isis - Demeter . Greek emigres faced individual religious choices they had not faced on their home cities, where the gods they worshiped were dictated by tradition. Hellenistic monarchies were closely associated with the religious life of the kingdoms they ruled. This had already been a feature of Macedonian kingship, which had priestly duties. [ 15 ] Hellenistic kings adopted patron deities as protectors of their house and sometimes claimed descent from them. The Seleucids for example took on Apollo as patron, the Antigonids had Herakles , and the Ptolemies claimed Dionysus among others. [ 16 ] The worship of dynastic ruler cults was also a feature of this period, most notably in Egypt, where the Ptolemies adopted earlier Pharaonic practice, and established themselves as god-kings . These cults were usually associated with a specific temple in honor of the ruler such as the Ptolemaieia at Alexandria and had their own festivals and theatrical performances. The setting up of ruler cults was more based on the systematized honors offered to the kings (sacrifice, proskynesis , statues, altars, hymns) which put them on par with the gods ( isotheism ) than on actual belief of their divine nature. According to Peter Green, these cults did not produce genuine belief of the divinity of rulers among the Greeks and Macedonians. [ 17 ] The worship of Alexander was also popular, as in the long lived cult at Erythrae and of course, at Alexandria, where his tomb was located. The Hellenistic age also saw a rise in the disillusionment with traditional religion. [ 18 ] The rise of philosophy and the sciences had removed the gods from many of their traditional domains such as their role in the movement of the heavenly bodies and natural disasters. The Sophists proclaimed the centrality of humanity and agnosticism ; the belief in Euhemerism (the view that the gods were simply ancient kings and heroes), became popular. The popular philosopher Epicurus promoted a view of disinterested gods living far away from the human realm in metakosmia . The apotheosis of rulers also brought the idea of divinity down to earth. While there does seem to have been a substantial decline in religiosity, this was mostly reserved for the educated classes. [ 19 ] Magic was practiced widely, and this, too, was a continuation from earlier times. Throughout the Hellenistic world, people would consult oracles , and use charms and figurines to deter misfortune or to cast spells. Also developed in this era was the complex system of astrology , which sought to determine a person's character and future in the movements of the Sun , Moon , and planets . Astrology was widely associated with the cult of Tyche (luck, fortune), which grew in popularity during this period. Literature Relief with Menander and New Comedy masks (Roman, AD 40–60). The masks show three New Comedy stock characters: youth, false maiden, old man. Princeton University Art Museum . The Hellenistic period saw the rise of New Comedy , the only few surviving representative texts being those of Menander (born 342/341 BC). Only one play, Dyskolos , survives in its entirety. The plots of this new Hellenistic comedy of manners were more domestic and formulaic, stereotypical low born characters such as slaves became more important, the language was colloquial and major motifs included escapism , marriage, romance and luck ( Tyche ). [ 20 ] Though no Hellenistic tragedy remains intact, they were still widely produced during the period, yet it seems that there was no major breakthrough in style, remaining within the classical model. The Supplementum Hellenisticum , a modern collection of extant fragments, contains the fragments of 150 authors. [ 21 ] An ancient fresco depicting a poet (thought to be Euphorion ) and a woman reading a diptych Hellenistic poets now sought patronage from kings, and wrote works in their honor. The scholars at the libraries in Alexandria and Pergamon focused on the collection, cataloging, and literary criticism of classical Athenian works and ancient Greek myths. The poet-critic Callimachus , a staunch elitist, wrote hymns equating Ptolemy II to Zeus and Apollo. He promoted short poetic forms such as the epigram , epyllion and the iambic and attacked epic as base and common ("big book, big evil" was his doctrine). [ 22 ] He also wrote a massive catalog of the holdings of the library of Alexandria, the famous Pinakes . Callimachus was extremely influential in his time and also for the development of Augustan poetry . Another poet, Apollonius of Rhodes , attempted to revive the epic for the Hellenistic world with his Argonautica . He had been a student of Callimachus and later became chief librarian ( prostates ) of the library of Alexandria. Apollonius and Callimachus spent much of their careers feuding with each other. Pastoral poetry also thrived during the Hellenistic era, Theocritus was a major poet who popularized the genre. Around 240 BC Livius Andronicus, a Greek slave from southern Italy, translated Homer's Odyssey into Latin. Greek literature would have a dominant effect on the development of the Latin literature of the Romans. The poetry of Virgil , Horace and Ovid were all based on Hellenistic styles. Philosophy Main article: Hellenistic philosophy Zeno of Citium founded Stoic philosophy. During the Hellenistic period, many different schools of thought developed, and these schools of Hellenistic philosophy had a significant influence on the Greek and Roman ruling elite. Athens, with its multiple philosophical schools, continued to remain the center of philosophical thought. However, Athens had now lost her political freedom, and Hellenistic philosophy is a reflection of this new difficult period. In this political climate, Hellenistic philosophers went in search of goals such as ataraxia (un-disturbedness), autarky (self-sufficiency), and apatheia (freedom from suffering), which would allow them to wrest well-being or eudaimonia out of the most difficult turns of fortune. This occupation with the inner life, with personal inner liberty and with the pursuit of eudaimonia is what all Hellenistic philosophical schools have in common. [ 23 ] The Epicureans and the Cynics eschewed public offices and civic service, which amounted to a rejection of the polis itself, the defining institution of the Greek world. Epicurus promoted atomism and an asceticism based on freedom from pain as its ultimate goal. The Cyrenaics and Epicureans embraced hedonism , arguing that pleasure was the only true good. Cynics such as Diogenes of Sinope rejected all material possessions and social conventions ( nomos ) as unnatural and useless. Stoicism , founded by Zeno of Citium , taught that virtue was sufficient for eudaimonia as it would allow one to live in accordance with Nature or Logos . The philosophical schools of Aristotle (the Peripatetics of the Lyceum ) and Plato ( Platonism at the Academy ) also remained influential. Against these dogmatic schools of philosophy the Pyrrhonist school embraced philosophical skepticism , and, starting with Arcesilaus , Plato's Academy also embraced skepticism in the form of Academic Skepticism . The spread of Christianity throughout the Roman world, followed by the spread of Islam , ushered in the end of Hellenistic philosophy and the beginnings of Medieval philosophy (often forcefully, as under Justinian I ), which was dominated by the three Abrahamic traditions: Jewish philosophy , Christian philosophy , and early Islamic philosophy . In spite of this shift, Hellenistic philosophy continued to influence these three religious traditions and the Renaissance thought which followed them. Sciences Further information: Hellenistic astronomy , Hellenistic mathematics , and Hellenistic geography One of the oldest surviving fragments of Euclid's Elements , found at Oxyrhynchus and dated to c.  AD 100 ( P. Oxy. 29 ). The diagram accompanies Book II, Proposition 5. [ 24 ] Science in the Hellenistic age differed from that of the previous era in at least two ways: first, it benefited from the cross-fertilization of Greek ideas with those that had developed in older civilizations; secondly, to some extent, it was supported by royal patrons in the kingdoms founded by Alexander's successors. The cultural competition among the Hellenistic kingdoms produced seats of learning throughout the Mediterranean, of which the most important was Alexandria in Egypt, which became a major center of scholarship in the 3rd century BC. In their scientific investigations, Hellenistic scholars frequently employed the principles developed earlier in ancient Greece : the application of mathematics to natural phenomena and the undertaking of deliberate empirical research. [ 25 ] [ 26 ] In mathematics , Hellenistic geometers built upon the work of mathematicians from the previous generation such as Theodorus , Archytas , Theaetetus , and Eudoxus . Euclid, whose Elements became the most important textbook in Western mathematics until the 19th century, presented proofs for the Pythagorean theorem , for the infinitude of primes , and for the five Platonic solids . [ 27 ] Archimedes made use of a technique dependent on proof by contradiction to solve problems with an arbitrary degree of accuracy. Known as the method of exhaustion , Archimedes used it in several of his works, including to approximate the value of π ( Measurement of the Circle ) and to prove that the area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line is 4/3 times the area of a triangle with equal base and height ( Quadrature of the Parabola ). [ 28 ] [ 29 ] The most characteristic product of Hellenistic mathematics was the theory of conic sections , reaching its greatest achievement in the work of Apollonius . It made no explicit use of either algebra or trigonometry , the latter appearing around the time of Hipparchus . [ 30 ] In the exact sciences , Eratosthenes measured the Earth's circumference and calculated the tilt of the Earth's axis with remarkable accuracy. [ 31 ] He might have also determined the distance from the Earth to the Sun and invented the leap day . [ 32 ] Eratosthenes drew a map of the world incorporating parallels and meridians , based on the available geographical knowledge of the era. Another important figure is the astronomer Hipparchus , who used Babylonian astronomical data and discovered the phenomena of Earth's precession . Pliny reports that Hipparchus produced the first systematic star catalog after he observed a new star, wishing to preserve astronomical record of the stars so that new ones could be discovered. [ 33 ] A celestial globe based on Hipparchus' star catalog presumably sits atop the broad shoulders of a large 2nd-century Roman statue known as the Farnese Atlas . [ 34 ] Another astronomer, Aristarchos of Samos , measured the distances of the Earth, Sun, and Moon, and developed a heliocentric theory. In mechanics, Ctesibius wrote the first treatises on the science of compressed air and its uses in pumps, and allegedly designed a kind of cannon as reported by Hero of Alexandria . [ 35 ] [ 36 ] In the life sciences, medicine made significant advances within the framework of the Hippocratic tradition. Praxagoras theorized that blood traveled through the veins, while Herophilos and Erasistratus performed dissections and vivisections of humans and animals, providing accurate descriptions of the nervous system , liver and other key organs. Influenced by Philinus of Cos , a student of Herophilos, the Empiric school of medicine focused on strict observation and rejected the unseen causes of the Dogmatic school . In botany, Theophrastus was known for his work in plant classification while Crateuas wrote a compendium on botanic pharmacy. The library of Alexandria presumably included a zoo for research and Hellenistic zoologists include Archelaos, Leonidas of Byzantion, Apollodoros of Alexandria and Bion of Soloi. [ 37 ] The technological achievement of the Hellenistic age is masterly displayed in the Antikythera mechanism , a 37-gear mechanical analog computer which calculated the motions of the Sun, Moon, and planets, including lunar and solar eclipses. [ 38 ] Devices of this sort are not found again until the 10th century, when a simpler eight-geared luni-solar calculator incorporated into an astrolabe was described by the Persian scholar, Al-Biruni . [ 39 ] Similarly complex devices were also developed by other Muslim engineers and astronomers during the Middle Ages . [ 38 ] Other technological developments of the Hellenistic age include cogged gears , pulleys, Archimedes' screw , the screw press , glassblowing , hollow bronze casting, surveying instruments, the odometer, the pantograph , the water clock , the watermill , the water organ , and the piston pump . Past interpretations of Hellenistic science often downplayed its significance, as found for instance in the English classical scholar Francis Cornford , who believed that "all the most important and original work was done in the three centuries from 600 to 300 BC". [ 40 ] Recent interpretations tend to be more generous, leading a few people like mathematician Lucio Russo to claim that the scientific method was actually born in the 3rd century BC, to be largely forgotten during the Roman period and only revived in full during the Renaissance . [ 41 ] Military science Further information: Hellenistic armies Ancient mechanical artillery: Catapults (standing), the chain drive of Polybolos (bottom center), Gastraphetes (on wall) Hellenistic warfare was a continuation of the military developments of Iphicrates and Philip II of Macedon , particularly his use of the Macedonian phalanx , a dense formation of pikemen , in conjunction with heavy companion cavalry . Armies of the Hellenistic period differed from those of the classical period in being largely made up of professional soldiers and also in their greater specialization and technical proficiency in siege warfare . Hellenistic armies were significantly larger than those of classical Greece relying increasingly on Greek mercenaries ( misthophoroi ; men-for-pay) and also on non-Greek soldiery such as Thracians, Galatians, Egyptians and Iranians. Some ethnic groups were known for their martial skill in a particular mode of combat and were highly sought after, including Tarantine cavalry , Cretan archers, Rhodian slingers and Thracian peltasts . This period also saw the adoption of new weapons and troop types such as Thureophoroi and the Thorakitai who used the oval Thureos shield and fought with javelins and the machaira sword. The use of heavily armored cataphracts and also horse archers was adopted by the Seleucids, Greco-Bactrians, Armenians and Pontus . The use of war elephants also became common. Seleucus received Indian war elephants from the Mauryan Empire , and used them to good effect at the battle of Ipsus . He kept a core of 500 of them at Apameia . The Ptolemies used the smaller African elephant. Hellenistic military equipment was generally characterized by an increase in size. Hellenistic-era warships grew from the trireme to include more banks of oars and larger numbers of rowers and soldiers as in the Quadrireme and Quinquereme. The Ptolemaic Tessarakonteres was the largest ship constructed in Antiquity. New siege engines were developed during this period. An unknown engineer developed the torsion-spring catapult ( c.  360 BC ) and Dionysios of Alexandria designed a repeating ballista , the Polybolos . Preserved examples of ball projectiles range from 4.4 to 78 kg (9.7 to 172.0 lb). [ 42 ] Demetrius Poliorcetes was notorious for the large siege engines employed in his campaigns, especially during the 12-month siege of Rhodes when he had Epimachos of Athens build a massive 160 ton siege tower named Helepolis , filled with artillery. Art Main articles: Hellenistic art and Hellenistic sculpture Head of an old woman, a good example of realism The term Hellenistic is a modern invention; the Hellenistic World not only included a huge area covering the whole of the Aegean, rather than the Classical Greece focused on the Poleis of Athens and Sparta , but also a huge time range. In artistic terms this means that there is huge variety which is often put under the heading of "Hellenistic Art" for convenience. Hardly any examples of Hellenistic paintings or sculptures survive, but we have many Roman copies. For Hellenistic sculpture we have some originals, including Laocoön and His Sons , the Venus de Milo , and the Winged Victory of Samothrace . Many surviving frescoes and mosaics from the Roman period are believed to be loose copies of Hellenistic paintings, but it is difficult to assess what the original artworks were like. Hellenistic art saw a turn from the idealistic, perfected, calm and composed figures of classical Greek art to a style dominated by realism and the depiction of emotion ( pathos ) and character ( ethos ). The motif of deceptively realistic naturalism in art ( aletheia ) is reflected in stories such as that of the pre-Hellenistic painter Zeuxis , who was said to have painted grapes that seemed so real that birds came and pecked at them. [ 43 ] The female nude also became more popular as epitomized by the Aphrodite of Cnidos of Praxiteles and art in general became more erotic (e.g., Leda and the Swan and Scopa's Pothos ). The dominant ideals of Hellenistic art were those of sensuality and passion. [ 44 ] People of all ages and social statuses were depicted in the art of the Hellenistic age. Artists such as Peiraikos chose mundane and lower class subjects for his paintings. According to Pliny, "He painted barbers' shops, cobblers' stalls, asses, eatables and similar subjects, earning for himself the name of rhyparographos [painter of dirt/low things]. In these subjects he could give consummate pleasure, selling them for more than other artists received for their large pictures" ( Natural History , Book XXXV.112). Even barbarians, such as the Galatians , were depicted in heroic form, prefiguring the artistic theme of the noble savage . The image of Alexander the Great was also an important artistic theme, and all of the diadochi had themselves depicted imitating Alexander's youthful look. Developments in painting included experiments in chiaroscuro by Zeuxis and the development of landscape painting and still life painting. [ 45 ] Greek temples built during the Hellenistic period were generally larger than classical ones, such as the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, the temple of Artemis at Sardis , and the temple of Apollo at Didyma (rebuilt by Seleucus in 300 BC). The royal palace ( basileion ) also came into its own during the Hellenistic period, the first extant example being the massive 4th-century villa of Cassander at Vergina . This period also saw the first written works of art history in the histories of Duris of Samos and Xenocrates of Athens , a sculptor and a historian of sculpture and painting. There has been a trend in writing the history of this period to depict Hellenistic art as a decadent style, following the Golden Age of Classical Athens . Pliny the Elder , after having described the sculpture of the classical period, says: Cessavit deinde ars ("then art disappeared"). [ 46 ] The 18th century terms Baroque and Rococo have sometimes been applied to the art of this complex and individual period. The renewal of the historiographical approach as well as some recent discoveries, such as the tombs of Vergina , allow a better appreciation of this period's artistic richness. Sport A lion hunt on a mosaic floor from Pella in Macedonia . Last quarter of the 4th century BC (Pella, Archaeological Museum). Throughout the Hellenistic period, several sports were practiced and promoted across the different cities and kingdoms of the time. Sport was culturally associated as a major compositional component of the "Hellenic self-image" and the participation in athleticism was seen as an important civic quality for representing one's homeland or city-state. During this period, this Hellenic perception on sport would go on to spread throughout the Hellenistic world. One contrast to the classical period is that the increased fluidity of citizenship and civic identity during the Hellenistic period meant that there arose a greater emphasis on honoring the philanthropic sponsors of athletic festivals rather than the athletes themselves, observed by the "scarcity of Hellenistic honorific decrees praising athletes" as highlighted by Antiopi Argyriou-Casmeridis. [ 47 ] Hunting was both a favorite pastime of the Macedonian kings and nobles of that age and a favorite subject for paintings. In Egypt, the Ptolemaic kings sponsored new athletic festivals, and subsidize 'Egyptian' or 'Alexandrian' athletes at major competitions. [ 48 ] Egyptian kings also provided funds for athletic facilities to be built, which housed ephebic education and encouraged citizens to partake in gymnasium classes. Ptolemaic and other Hellenistic royals often competed at athletic competitions like The Olympics or other Panathenaic games. Women during the Hellenistic period were often given opportunities to show off their athletic abilities in similar ways to men. In Egypt , Ptolemaic women were well known in terms of court, and during equestrian competitions. Despite women being banned from watching sports and events like the male Olympics, in Hellenistic Empires, female sport (especially equestrian sport) flourished. Discoveries of poems in 2001 depicted eighteen different wins for equestrian sport. These wins took place at competitions like Olympia and Athens , and all originated from the royal court. Several of these wins resulted from women and confirmed the desires and self-representation of Hellenistic rulers as they tried to influence the Greek World. [ 49 ] Other forms of leisure activities included public presentations and demonstrations. These performances were often orchestrated by the royals for their own enjoyment. It is noted that these events were catered for both the female and male audiences. These events would often contain displays of exotic animals and other paraphernalia that aided to display their wealth and the territories that they controlled. While empires during the Hellenistic period ruled, they witnessed "expansion of 'crown' or 'Iso-' (equal to) major athletic festivals". [ 48 ] This movement as well as the public displays for royalty were both trends what would continue into the Roman Empire . ^ Claessen, Henri J. M.; Skalník, Peter, eds. (1978). The Early State . De Gruyter Mouton. p. 428. doi : 10.1515/9783110813326 . ISBN   978-90-279-7904-9 . ^ Gent, John. The Scythie nations, down to the fall of the Western empire, p. 4. ^ Prag & Quinn (editors). The Hellenistic West , pp. 229–237. ^ Pârvan, Vasile. Dacia, p. 100. ^ Green (1990), pp. xx, 68–69. ^ Bugh, Glenn R. (editor). The Cambridge Companion to the Hellenistic World, 2007. p. 190. ^ a b c d e Roy M. MacLeod (2004). The Library Of Alexandria: Centre Of Learning In The Ancient World . I.B. Tauris. ISBN   1-85043-594-4 . ^ a b Green, p. 21. ^ Green, p. 23. ^ Green, p. 313. ^ Green, p. 315. ^ Green, p. 22. ^ Bugh, pp. 206–210. ^ Bugh, p. 209. ^ Walbank et al. (2008), p. 84. ^ Walbank et al. (2008), p. 86. ^ Green, p. 402. ^ Green, p. 396. ^ Green, p. 399. ^ Green, pp. 66-74. ^ Green, p. 65. ^ Green, p. 179. ^ Green, Peter; Alexander to Actium, the historical evolution of the Hellenistic age, p. 53. ^ Bill Casselman . "One of the Oldest Extant Diagrams from Euclid" . University of British Columbia . Retrieved 2008-09-26 . ^ Luce, J. V. (1988). "Greek Science in its Hellenistic Phase" . Hermathena (145): 23– 38. ISSN   0018-0750 . JSTOR   23040930 . ^ Lloyd (1973), p. 177. ^ Bugh, p. 245. ^ Knorr, W. R. (1976). "Archimedes and the Measurement of the Circle: A New Interpretation" . Archive for History of Exact Sciences . 15 (2): 115– 140. doi : 10.1007/BF00348496 . ISSN   0003-9519 . JSTOR   41133444 . S2CID   120954547 . ^ Swain, G.; Dence, T. (1998). "Archimedes' Quadrature of the Parabola Revisited" . Mathematics Magazine . 71 (2): 123– 130. doi : 10.2307/2691014 . ISSN   0025-570X . JSTOR   2691014 . ^ Toomer, G. J. (1974). "The Chord Table of Hipparchus and the Early History of Greek Trigonometry" . Centaurus . 18 (1): 6– 28. Bibcode : 1974Cent...18....6T . doi : 10.1111/j.1600-0498.1974.tb00205.x . ISSN   0008-8994 . ^ Russo, Lucio (2004). The Forgotten Revolution . Berlin: Springer. pp.  273 –277. ^ Alfred, Randy (June 19, 2008). "June 19, 240 B.C.E: The Earth Is Round, and It's This Big" . Wired . Retrieved 2013-06-22 . ^ Otto Neugebauer (1975). A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy . New York: Springer. pp.  284– 5. ; Lloyd (1973), pp. 69-71. ^ Schaefer, Bradley E. (2005). "The Epoch of the Constellations on the Farnese Atlas and Their Origin in Hipparchus's Lost Catalogue" (PDF) . Journal for the History of Astronomy . 36 (2): 167– 96. Bibcode : 2005JHA....36..167S . doi : 10.1177/002182860503600202 . S2CID   15431718 . ; But see also Duke, Dennis W. (2006). "Analysis of the Farnese Globe". Journal for the History of Astronomy . 37 (126): 87– 100. Bibcode : 2006JHA....37...87D . doi : 10.1177/002182860603700107 . S2CID   36841784 . ^ Hero (1899). "Pneumatika, Book ΙΙ, Chapter XI" . Herons von Alexandria Druckwerke und Automatentheater (in Greek and German). Wilhelm Schmidt (translator). Leipzig: B.G. Teubner. pp.  228– 232. ^ Research Machines plc. (2004). The Hutchinson dictionary of scientific biography . Abingdon, Oxon: Helicon Publishing. p. 546. Hero of Alexandria (lived c. AD 60) Greek mathematician, engineer and the greatest experimentalist of antiquity ^ Green, p. 467. ^ a b Freeth, T.; et al. (2006). "Decoding the ancient Greek astronomical calculator known as the Antikythera Mechanism". Nature . 444 (7119): 587– 91. Bibcode : 2006Natur.444..587F . doi : 10.1038/nature05357 . PMID   17136087 . S2CID   4424998 . ; Marchant, Jo (2006). "In Search of Lost Time" . Nature . 444 (7119): 534– 8. Bibcode : 2006Natur.444..534M . doi : 10.1038/444534a . PMID   17136067 . ; ^ Charette, François (2006). "High tech from Ancient Greece" . Nature . 444 (7119): 551– 2. Bibcode : 2006Natur.444..551C . doi : 10.1038/444551a . PMID   17136077 . S2CID   33513516 . ; Noble Wilford, John (2006-11-30). "Early Astronomical 'Computer' Found to Be Technically Complex" . The New York Times . Retrieved 2006-11-30 . ^ F. M. Cornford. The Unwritten Philosophy and Other Essays . p. 83. quoted in Lloyd (1973), p. 154. ^ Russo, Lucio (2004). The Forgotten Revolution: How Science Was Born in 300 BC and Why It Had To Be Reborn . Berlin: Springer. ISBN   3-540-20396-6 . But see the critical reviews by Mott Greene, Nature , vol 430, no. 7000 (5 Aug 2004):614 [1] and Michael Rowan-Robinson, Physics World , vol. 17, no. 4 (April 2004) [2] Archived 2007-04-04 at the Wayback Machine . ^ Bugh, p. 285. ^ Green, Peter; Alexander to Actium, the historical evolution of the Hellenistic age, p. 92. ^ Green, p. 342. ^ Green, Peter; Alexander to Actium, the historical evolution of the Hellenistic age, pp. 117–118. ^ Pliny the Elder , Natural History (XXXIV, 52) ^ Christian Mann, Sofie Remijsen, Sebastian Scharff, Athletics in the Hellenistic World . Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2016. ^ a b Kyle, Donald G. (2017). "Chapter 5, Ancient Greek and Roman Sport". In Edelman, Robert; Wilson, Wayne (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Sports History (Robert ed.). Oxford University Press. pp.  87– 88. ISBN   9780197520956 . ^ Kyle, Donald G. (2017). "Chapter 5, Ancient Greek and Roman Sport". In Edelman, Robert; Wilson, Wayne (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Sports History . Oxford University Press. ISBN   9780197520956 .

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Legacy The focus on the Hellenistic period over the course of the 19th century by scholars and historians has led to an issue common to the study of historical periods; historians see the period of focus as a mirror of the period in which they are living. Many 19th-century scholars contended that the Hellenistic period represented a cultural decline from the brilliance of classical Greece . Though this comparison is now seen as unfair and meaningless, it has been noted that even commentators of the time saw the end of a cultural era which could not be matched again. [ 1 ] This may be inextricably linked with the nature of government. It has been noted by Herodotus that after the establishment of the Athenian democracy: the Athenians found themselves suddenly a great power. Not just in one field, but in everything they set their minds to ... As subjects of a tyrant, what had they accomplished? ...Held down like slaves they had shirked and slacked; once they had won their freedom, not a citizen but he could feel like he was labouring for himself [ 2 ] Thus, with the decline of the Greek polis, and the establishment of monarchical states, the environment and social freedom in which to excel may have been reduced. [ 3 ] A parallel can be drawn with the productivity of the city states of Italy during the Renaissance , and their subsequent decline under autocratic rulers. [ citation needed ] However, William Woodthorpe Tarn , between World War I and World War II and the heyday of the League of Nations , focused on the issues of racial and cultural confrontation and the nature of colonial rule. Michael Rostovtzeff , who fled the Russian Revolution , concentrated predominantly on the rise of the capitalist bourgeoisie in areas of Greek rule. Arnaldo Momigliano , an Italian Jew who wrote before and after the Second World War, studied the problem of mutual understanding between races in the conquered areas. Moses Hadas portrayed an optimistic picture of synthesis of culture from the perspective of the 1950s, while Frank William Walbank in the 1960s and 1970s had a materialistic approach to the Hellenistic period, focusing mainly on class relations. Recently, however, papyrologist C. Préaux has concentrated predominantly on the economic system, interactions between kings and cities, and provides a generally pessimistic view on the period. Peter Green , on the other hand, writes from the point of view of late-20th-century liberalism , his focus being on individualism , the breakdown of convention, experiments, and a postmodern disillusionment with all institutions and political processes. [ 4 ] Influence on Christianity Alexander's conquests expanded the influence of Greek culture in Asia, which many centuries later contributed to the spread of Christianity (from: Greek Χρῑστῐᾱνισμός). One of Alexander's generals, Seleucus I Nicator who controlled most of Asia Minor , Syria , Mesopotamia , and the Iranian Plateau after Alexander's death, founded Antioch , which later became known as the cradle of Christianity, since the name "Christian" for Jesus' followers first emerged there. The New Testament of the Bible (from: Koine Greek τὰ βιβλία, tà biblía, "the books") was written in Koine Greek . [ 5 ] ^ Green, p. xv. ^ Herodotus (Holland, T. Persian Fire , p. 193.) ^ Green. [ full citation needed ] ^ Green, Peter (2007). The Hellenistic Age (A Short History) . New York: Modern Library Chronicles. ^ "The mixture of Roman, Greek, and Jewish elements admirably adapted Antioch for the great part it played in the early history of Christianity. The city was the cradle of the church." — "Antioch," Encyclopaedia Biblica , Vol. I, p. 186 (p. 125 of 612 in online .pdf file . Warning: Takes several minutes to download).

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