Austria–Hungary

History Background and establishment Main article: Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 Following Hungary's defeat against the Ottoman Empire in the Battle of Mohács of 1526, the Habsburg Empire became more involved in the Kingdom of Hungary, and subsequently assumed the Hungarian throne. However, as the Ottomans expanded further into Hungary, the Habsburgs came to control only a small north-western portion of the former kingdom's territory. Eventually, following the Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718, all former territories of the Hungarian kingdom were ceded from the Ottomans to the Habsburgs. In the revolutions of 1848 , the Kingdom of Hungary called for greater self-government and later even independence from the Austrian Empire . The ensuing Hungarian Revolution of 1848 was crushed by the Austrian military with Russian military assistance, and the level of autonomy that the Hungarian state had enjoyed was replaced with absolutist rule from Vienna. [ 1 ] This further increased Hungarian resentment of the Habsburg dominion. [ 2 ] In the 1860s, the Empire faced two severe defeats: its loss in the Second Italian War of Independence broke its dominion over a large part of Northern Italy ( Lombardy, Veneto , Modena, Reggio , Tuscany , Parma and Piacenza ) while defeat in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 led to the dissolution of the German Confederation (of which the Habsburg emperor was the hereditary president) and the exclusion of Austria from German affairs. [ 3 ] These twin defeats gave the Hungarians the opportunity to remove the shackles of absolutist rule. [ 4 ] Realizing the need to compromise with Hungary in order to retain its great power status, the central government in Vienna began negotiations with the Hungarian political leaders, led by Ferenc Deák . The Hungarians maintained that the April Laws were still valid, but conceded that under the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 , foreign affairs and defence were "common" to Austria and Hungary. On 20 March 1867, the newly re-established Hungarian parliament at Pest started to negotiate the new laws to be accepted on 30 March. However, Hungarian leaders received word that the Emperor's formal coronation as King of Hungary on 8 June had to have taken place in order for the laws to be enacted within the lands of the Holy Crown of Hungary . [ 5 ] On 28 July, Franz Joseph, in his new capacity as King of Hungary, approved and promulgated the new laws, which officially gave birth to the Dual Monarchy. 1866–1878: Beyond Lesser Germany Coronation of Franz Joseph I and Elisabeth Amalie at Matthias Church , Buda , 8 June 1867 The Austro-Prussian War was ended by the Peace of Prague (1866) which settled the " German question " in favor of a Lesser German Solution . [ 6 ] Count Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust , who was the foreign minister from 1866 to 1871, hated the Prussian chancellor, Otto von Bismarck , who had repeatedly outmaneuvered him. Beust looked to France for avenging Austria's defeat and attempted to negotiate with Emperor Napoleon III of France and Italy for an anti-Prussian alliance, but no terms could be reached. The decisive victory of the Prusso-German armies in the Franco-Prussian war and the subsequent founding of the German Empire ended all hope of re-establishing Austrian influence in Germany, and Beust retired. [ 7 ] After being forced out of Germany and Italy, the Dual Monarchy turned to the Balkans, which were in tumult as nationalistic movements were gaining strength and demanding independence. [ 8 ] Both Russia and Austria–Hungary saw an opportunity to expand in this region. Russia took on the role of protector of Slavs and Orthodox Christians. Austria envisioned a multi-ethnic, religiously diverse empire under Vienna's control. Count Gyula Andrássy , a Hungarian who was Foreign Minister (1871–1879), made the centerpiece of his policy one of opposition to Russian expansion in the Balkans and blocking Serbian ambitions to dominate a new South Slav federation. He wanted Germany to ally with Austria, not Russia. [ 9 ] 1877–1908: Congress of Berlin and Balkan instability Main articles: Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) , Congress of Berlin , and Bosnia and Herzegovina in Austria-Hungary Recruits from Bosnia-Herzegovina, including Muslim Bosniaks (31%), were drafted into special units of the Austro-Hungarian Army as early as 1879 and were commended for their bravery in service of the Austrian emperor, being awarded more medals than any other unit. The military march " Die Bosniaken kommen " was composed in their honor by Eduard Wagnes . [ 10 ] Bosnian Muslim resistance during the battle of Sarajevo in 1878 against the Austro-Hungarian occupation Russian Pan-Slavic organizations sent aid to the Balkan rebels and so pressured the tsar's government to declare war on the Ottoman Empire in 1877 in the name of protecting Orthodox Christians. [ 5 ] Unable to mediate between the Ottoman Empire and Russia over the control of Serbia, Austria–Hungary declared neutrality when the conflict between the two powers escalated into a war . With help from Romania and Greece, Russia defeated the Ottomans and with the Treaty of San Stefano tried to create a large pro-Russian Bulgaria. This treaty sparked an international uproar that almost resulted in a general European war. Austria–Hungary and Britain feared that a large Bulgaria would become a Russian satellite that would enable the tsar to dominate the Balkans. British Prime Pinister Benjamin Disraeli moved warships into position against Russia to halt the advance of Russian influence in the eastern Mediterranean so close to Britain's route through the Suez Canal . [ 11 ] The Treaty of San Stefano was seen in Austria as much too favourable for Russia and its Orthodox-Slavic goals. At the Congress of Berlin in 1878 Gyula Andrássy (Minister of Foreign Affairs), with British support, managed to force Russia to reduce its excessive demands in the Balkans. As a result, Greater Bulgaria was broken up and remained under nominal Ottoman control, Serbia, Montenegro and Romania became fully independent and Austria occupied (but did not annex) the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, a predominantly Slavic area. The occupation required 150,000 troops and several weeks of fighting; the provinces were put under the administration of the Ministry of Finance. [ 12 ] In that year, with Britain's support, Austria–Hungary stationed troops in Bosnia to prevent the Russians from expanding into nearby Serbia. In another measure to keep the Russians out of the Balkans, Austria–Hungary formed an alliance, the Mediterranean Entente, with Britain and Italy in 1887 and concluded mutual defence pacts with Germany in 1879 and Romania in 1883 against a possible Russian attack. [ 13 ] Following the Congress of Berlin the European powers attempted to guarantee stability through a complex series of alliances and treaties. Anxious about Balkan instability and Russian aggression, and to counter French interests in Europe, Austria–Hungary forged a defensive alliance with Germany in October 1879 and in May 1882. In October 1882 Italy joined this partnership in the Triple Alliance largely because of Italy's imperial rivalries with France. Tensions between Russia and Austria–Hungary remained high, so Bismarck replaced the League of the Three Emperors with the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia to keep the Habsburgs from recklessly starting a war over Pan-Slavism. [ 14 ] The Sandžak-Raška / Novibazar region was under Austro-Hungarian occupation between 1878 and 1909, when it was returned to the Ottoman Empire, before being ultimately divided between kingdoms of Montenegro and Serbia . [ 15 ] 1908: Bosnian Crisis Main article: Bosnia Crisis The monarchy eventually annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in October 1908 as a common holding of Cisleithania and Transleithania under the control of the Imperial & Royal finance ministry rather than attaching it to either territorial government. The annexation in 1908 led some in Vienna to contemplate combining Bosnia and Herzegovina with Croatia to form a third Slavic component of the monarchy. The deaths of Franz Joseph's brother, Maximilian (1867), and his only son, Rudolf , made the Emperor's nephew, Franz Ferdinand , heir to the throne. The Archduke was rumoured to have been an advocate for this trialism as a means to limit the power of the Hungarian aristocracy. [ 16 ] A proclamation issued on the occasion of its annexation to the Habsburg monarchy in October 1908 promised these lands constitutional institutions, which should secure to their inhabitants full civil rights and a share in the management of their own affairs by means of a local representative assembly. In performance of this promise a constitution was promulgated in 1910. [ 17 ] The principal players in the Bosnian Crisis of 1908–09 were the foreign ministers of Austria and Russia, Alois Lexa von Aehrenthal and Alexander Izvolsky . Both were motivated by political ambition; the first would emerge successful, and the latter would be broken by the crisis. Along the way, they would drag Europe to the brink of war in 1909. They would also divide Europe into the two armed camps that would go to war in July 1914. [ 18 ] [ 19 ] k.u.k. infantry in 1898 Aehrenthal had started with the assumption that the Slavic minorities could never come together, and the Balkan League would never cause any damage to Austria. He turned down an Ottoman proposal for an alliance that would include Austria, Turkey, and Romania. However, his policies alienated the Bulgarians, who turned instead to Russia and Serbia. Although Austria had no intention to embark on additional expansion to the south, Aehrenthal encouraged speculation to that effect, expecting that it would paralyze the Balkan states. Instead, it incited them to feverish activity to create a defensive block to stop Austria. A series of grave miscalculations at the highest level thus significantly strengthened Austria's enemies. [ 20 ] In 1914, Slavic militants in Bosnia rejected Austria's plan to fully absorb the area; they assassinated the Austrian heir and precipitated World War I. [ 21 ] 1914–1918: World War I Main article: History of Austria-Hungary during World War I Prelude to World War I Main articles: July Crisis , Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand , and Austro-Hungarian entry into World War I Further information: Causes of World War I This picture of the arrest of a suspect in Sarajevo is usually associated with the capture of Gavrilo Princip , although some [ 22 ] [ 23 ] believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander detained by mistake. The 28 June 1914 assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in the Bosnian capital, Sarajevo , excessively intensified the existing traditional religion-based ethnic hostilities in Bosnia. However, in Sarajevo itself, Austrian authorities encouraged [ 24 ] [ 25 ] violence against the Serb residents, which resulted in anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo , in which Catholic Croats and Bosnian Muslims killed two and damaged numerous Serb-owned buildings. Writer Ivo Andrić referred to the violence as the "Sarajevo frenzy of hate." [ 26 ] Violent actions against ethnic Serbs were organized not only in Sarajevo but also in many other larger Austro-Hungarian cities in modern-day Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. [ 27 ] Austro-Hungarian authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina imprisoned and extradited approximately 5,500 prominent Serbs, 700 to 2,200 of whom died in prison. Four hundred sixty Serbs were sentenced to death and a predominantly Muslim [ 28 ] [ 29 ] special militia known as the Schutzkorps was established and carried out the persecution of Serbs. [ 30 ] Crowds on the streets in the aftermath of the Anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo , 29 June 1914 MÁVAG armoured train in 1914 Some members of the government, such as Minister of Foreign Affairs Count Leopold Berchtold and Army Commander Count Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf , had wanted to confront the resurgent Serbian nation for some years in a preventive war, but the Emperor and Hungarian prime minister István Tisza were opposed. The foreign ministry of Austro-Hungarian Empire sent ambassador László Szőgyény to Potsdam , where he inquired about the standpoint of the German emperor, Wilhelm II , on 5 July and received a supportive response. His Majesty authorized me to report to [Franz Joseph] that in this case, too, we could count on Germany's full support. As mentioned, he first had to consult with the Chancellor, but he did not have the slightest doubt that Herr von Bethmann Hollweg would fully agree with him, particularly with regard to action on our part against Serbia. In his [Wilhelm's] opinion, though, there was no need to wait patiently before taking action... [ 31 ] The leaders of Austria–Hungary therefore decided to confront Serbia militarily before it could incite a revolt; using the assassination as an excuse, they presented a list of ten demands called the July Ultimatum , [ 32 ] expecting Serbia would never accept. When Serbia accepted nine of the ten demands but only partially accepted the remaining one, Austria–Hungary declared war. Franz Joseph I finally followed the urgent counsel of his top advisers. Over the course of July and August 1914, these events caused the start of World War I, as Russia mobilized in support of Serbia, setting off a series of counter-mobilizations. In support of his German ally, on Thursday, 6 August 1914, Emperor Franz Joseph signed the declaration of war on Russia. Italy initially remained neutral, despite its alliance with Austria–Hungary. In 1915, it switched to the side of the Entente powers , hoping to gain territory from its former ally. [ 33 ] Wartime foreign policy Further information: Diplomatic history of World War I Franz Josef I and Wilhelm II with military commanders during World War I The Austro-Hungarian Empire played a relatively passive diplomatic role in the war, as it was increasingly dominated and controlled by Germany. [ 34 ] [ 35 ] The only goal was to punish Serbia and try to stop the ethnic breakup of the Empire, and it completely failed. Starting in late 1916 the new Emperor Karl removed the pro-German officials and opened peace overtures to the Allies, whereby the entire war could be ended by compromise, or perhaps Austria would make a separate peace from Germany. [ 36 ] The main effort was vetoed by Italy, which had been promised large slices of Austria for joining the Allies in 1915. Austria was only willing to turn over the Trentino region but nothing more. [ 37 ] Karl was seen as a defeatist, which weakened his standing at home and with both the Allies and Germany . [ 38 ] Homefront See also: Hungary in World War I The heavily rural empire did have a small industrial base, but its major contributions were manpower and food. [ 39 ] [ 40 ] Nevertheless, Austria–Hungary was more urbanized (25%) [ 41 ] than its actual opponents in the war, like the Russian Empire (13.4%), [ 42 ] Serbia (13.2%) [ 43 ] or Romania (18.8%). [ 44 ] Furthermore, the Austro-Hungarian Empire had also more industrialized economy [ 45 ] and higher GDP per capita [ 46 ] than the Kingdom of Italy, which was economically the far most developed actual opponent of the Empire. On the home front, food grew scarcer and scarcer, as did heating fuel. Hungary, with its heavy agricultural base, was somewhat better fed. The army conquered productive agricultural areas in Romania and elsewhere, but refused to allow food shipments to civilians back home. Morale fell every year, and the diverse nationalities gave up on the empire and looked for ways to establish their own nation states. [ 47 ] Inflation soared, from an index of 129 in 1914 to 1589 in 1918, wiping out the cash savings of the middle class. In terms of war damage to the economy, the war consumed about 20 percent of the gross domestic product . The dead soldiers amounted to about four percent of the 1914 labor force, and the wounded ones to another six percent. Compared to the major countries in the war, the death and casualty rates were toward the high end regarding the present-day territory of Austria. [ 39 ] By summer 1918, " Green Cadres " of army deserters formed armed bands in the hills of Croatia-Slavonia, and civil authority disintegrated. By late October, violence and massive looting erupted, and there were efforts to form peasant republics. However, the Croatian political leadership was focused on creating a new state (Yugoslavia) and worked with the advancing Serbian army to impose control and end the uprisings. [ 48 ] Theaters of operations See also: Theater (warfare) The Austro-Hungarian Empire conscripted 7.8 million soldiers during the war. [ 49 ] General von Hötzendorf was the Chief of the Austro-Hungarian General Staff. Franz Joseph I, who was much too old to command the army, appointed Archduke Friedrich von Österreich-Teschen as Supreme Army Commander (Armeeoberkommandant), but asked him to give Von Hötzendorf freedom to take any decisions. Von Hötzendorf remained in effective command of the military forces until Emperor Karl I took supreme command himself in late 1916 and dismissed Conrad von Hötzendorf in 1917. Meanwhile, economic conditions on the home front deteriorated rapidly. The empire depended on agriculture, and agriculture depended on the heavy labor of millions of men who were now in the army. Food production fell, the transportation system became overcrowded, and industrial production could not successfully handle the overwhelming need for munitions. Germany provided a great deal of help, but it was not enough. Furthermore, the political instability of the multiple ethnic groups within the empire now ripped apart any hope for national consensus in support of the war. Increasingly there was a demand for breaking up the empire and setting up autonomous national states based on historic, language-based cultures. The new emperor sought peace terms from the Allies, but his initiatives were vetoed by Italy. [ 50 ] [ page needed ] Serbian front 1914–1916 Main articles: Serbian Campaign (World War I) and Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia Šabac in Serbia, pictured in August 1914, was the first target of the Austro-Hungarian punitive expedition and the site of many atrocities committed against the local population. At the start of the war, the army was divided into two: the smaller part attacked Serbia, while the larger part fought against the formidable Imperial Russian Army . The invasion of Serbia in 1914 was a disaster: by the end of the year, the Austro-Hungarian Army had taken no territory, but had lost 227,000 out of a total force of 450,000 men. However, in the autumn of 1915, the Serbian Army was defeated by the Central Powers, which led to the occupation of Serbia. Near the end of 1915, in a massive rescue operation involving more than 1,000 trips made by Italian, French and British steamers, 260,000 Serb soldiers were transported to Brindisi and Corfu , where they waited for the chance of the victory of Allied powers to reclaim their country. Corfu hosted the Serbian government in exile after the collapse of Serbia and served as a supply base for the Greek front. In April 1916 a large number of Serbian troops were transported in British and French naval vessels from Corfu to mainland Greece. The contingent numbering over 120,000 relieved a much smaller army at the Macedonian front and fought alongside British and French troops. [ 51 ] Russian front 1914–1917 Main article: Eastern Front (World War I) Siege of Przemyśl in 1915 On the Eastern front , the war started out equally poorly. The government accepted the Polish proposal of establishing the Supreme National Committee as the Polish central authority within the empire, responsible for the formation of the Polish Legions , an auxiliary military formation within the Austro-Hungarian Army. The Austro-Hungarian Army was defeated at the Battle of Lemberg and the great fortress city of Przemyśl was besieged and fell in March 1915. The Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive started as a minor German offensive to relieve the pressure of the Russian numerical superiority on the Austro-Hungarians, but the cooperation of the Central Powers resulted in huge Russian losses and the total collapse of the Russian lines and their 100 km (62 mi) long retreat into Russia. The Russian Third Army disintegrated. In summer 1915, the Austro-Hungarian Army, under a unified command with the Germans, participated in the successful Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive. From June 1916, the Russians focused their attacks on the Austro-Hungarian Army in the Brusilov Offensive , recognizing the latter's numerical inferiority. By the end of September 1916, Austria–Hungary mobilized and concentrated new divisions, and the successful Russian advance was halted and slowly repelled; but the Austrian armies took heavy losses (about 1 million men) and never recovered. Nevertheless, the huge losses in men and materiel inflicted on the Russians during the offensive contributed greatly to the Russian Revolution of 1917 and caused an economic crash in the Russian Empire. The Act of 5 November 1916 was then proclaimed to the Poles jointly by the Emperors Wilhelm II of Germany and Franz Joseph of Austria-Hungary. This act promised the creation of the Kingdom of Poland out of the territory of Congress Poland , envisioned by its authors as a puppet state controlled by the Central Powers, with the nominal authority vested in the Regency Council . The origin of that document was the dire need to draft new recruits from German-occupied Poland for the war with Russia . Following the Armistice of 11 November 1918 ending the World War I, in spite of the previous initial total dependence of the kingdom on its sponsors, it ultimately served against their intentions as the cornerstone proto state of the nascent Second Polish Republic , the latter composed also of territories never intended by the Central Powers to be ceded to Poland. The Battle of Zborov (1917) was the first significant action of the Czechoslovak Legions , which fought for the independence of Czechoslovakia against the Austro-Hungarian Army. Italian front 1915–1918 Main article: Italian Front (World War I) Italian troops in Trento on 3 November 1918, after the Battle of Vittorio Veneto . Italy's victory marked the end of the war on the Italian Front and secured the dissolution of Austria–Hungary. [ 52 ] In May 1915, Italy attacked Austria–Hungary. Italy was the only military opponent of Austria–Hungary which had a similar degree of industrialization and economic level; moreover, her army was numerous (≈1,000,000 men were immediately fielded), but suffered from poor leadership, training and organization. Chief of Staff Luigi Cadorna marched his army towards the Isonzo River, hoping to seize Ljubljana, and to eventually threaten Vienna. However, the Royal Italian Army were halted on the river, where four battles took place over five months (23 June – 2 December 1915). The fight was extremely bloody and exhausting for both sides. [ 53 ] On 15 May 1916, Austrian Chief of Staff Conrad von Hötzendorf launched the Strafexpedition (" punitive expedition "): the Austrians broke through the front and occupied the Asiago plateau . The Italians managed to resist and in a counteroffensive seized Gorizia on 9 August. Nonetheless, they had to stop on the Carso , a few kilometres away from the border. At this point, several months of indecisive trench warfare ensued (analogous to the Western front ). As the Russian Empire collapsed as a result of the Bolshevik Revolution and the Russians ended their involvement in the war , Germans and Austrians were able to transfer much of their manpower to the Western and Southern fronts from the erstwhile Eastern fighting. On 24 October 1917, Austrians (now enjoying decisive German support) attacked at Caporetto using new infiltration tactics; although they advanced more than 100 km (62.14 mi) in the direction of Venice and gained considerable supplies, they were halted and could not cross the Piave River. Italy, although suffering massive casualties, recovered from the blow, and a coalition government under Vittorio Emanuele Orlando was formed. Italy also enjoyed the support of the Entente: by 1918, large amounts of war materials and a few auxiliary American, British, and French divisions arrived in the Italian battle zone. [ 54 ] Cadorna was replaced by General Armando Diaz ; under his command, the Italians retook the initiative and won the decisive Second Battle of the Piave River (15–23 June 1918), in which some 60,000 Austrian and 43,000 Italian soldiers were killed. The final battle at Vittorio Veneto was lost by 31 October 1918 and the armistice was signed at Villa Giusti on 3 November. [ 55 ] Romanian front 1916–1917 Main article: Romania during World War I On 27 August 1916, Romania declared war against Austria–Hungary. The Romanian Army crossed the borders of eastern Hungary (Transylvania), but despite initial successes, by November 1916, the Austro-Hungarian, German, Bulgarian, and Ottoman armies had defeated the Romanian and Russian armies, and occupied the southern part of Romania (including Oltenia , Muntenia and Dobruja ). Within three months of the war, the Central Powers approached Bucharest , the Romanian capital. On 6 December, Bucharest was captured, and part of the population moved to the unoccupied Romanian territory, in Moldavia , together with the Romanian government, royal court and public authorities, which relocated to Iași . [ 56 ] In 1917, after several defensive victories (managing to stop the German-Austro-Hungarian advance), with Russia's withdrawal from the war following the October Revolution, Romania was forced to drop out of the war. [ 57 ] Role of Hungary War memorial in Păuleni-Ciuc , Romania Although the Kingdom of Hungary comprised only 42% of the population of Austria–Hungary, [ 58 ] the thin majority— more than 3.8 million soldiers—of the Austro-Hungarian armed forces were conscripted from the Kingdom of Hungary during the First World War. Roughly 600,000 soldiers were killed in action, and 700,000 soldiers were wounded in the war. [ 59 ] Austria–Hungary held on for years, as the Hungarian half provided sufficient supplies for the military to continue to wage war. [ 12 ] This was shown in a transition of power after which the Hungarian prime minister, Count István Tisza, and foreign minister, Count István Burián , had decisive influence over the internal and external affairs of the monarchy. [ 12 ] By late 1916, food supply from Hungary became intermittent and the government sought an armistice with the Entente powers. However, this failed as Britain and France no longer had any regard for the integrity of the monarchy due to Austro-Hungarian support for Germany. [ 12 ] Analysis of defeat The setbacks that the Austrian army suffered in 1914 and 1915 can be attributed to a large extent by the incompetence of the Austrian high command. [ 12 ] After attacking Serbia, its forces soon had to be withdrawn to protect its eastern frontier against Russia's invasion, while German units were engaged in fighting on the Western Front. This resulted in a greater than expected loss of men in the invasion of Serbia. [ 12 ] Furthermore, it became evident that the Austrian high command had had no plans for possible continental war and that the army and navy were also ill-equipped to handle such a conflict. [ 12 ] In the last two years of the war the Austro-Hungarian armed forces lost all ability to act independently of Germany. As of 7 September 1916, the German emperor was given full control of all the armed forces of the Central Powers and Austria-Hungary effectively became a satellite of Germany. [ 60 ] The Austrians viewed the German army favorably; on the other hand, by 1916 the general belief in Germany was that Germany, in its alliance with Austria–Hungary, was "shackled to a corpse". The operational capability of the Austro-Hungarian army was seriously affected by supply shortages, low morale and a high casualty rate, and by the army's composition of multiple ethnicities with different languages and customs. [ 61 ] 1918: Demise, disintegration, dissolution Main article: Dissolution of Austria-Hungary Karl I of Austria envisaged the Habsburg Empire as being made up of five Kingdoms, in a last desperate attempt to save the Monarchy. A humorous " obituary " of the Austrian Empire, published in Kraków in late 1918. Translation: "Overwhelmed with joy, until recently enslaved and now free Nations announce that their wicked step-mother AUSTRIA the WITCH, operated in William's Clinic, died from senility after severe spasms, cursed by all those who had the infelicity of having to do with her. Her dreadful funeral took place during these days in the fields of Macedonia, on the Piave River and across the Rhine . Let her rest in eternal peace and may she never raise from the dead. POLES , CZECHO - SLOVAKS , YUGOSLAVS Funeral home Wilson & Co." By 1918, the economic situation had deteriorated and governmental failure on the homefront ended popular support for the war. [ 62 ] The Austro-Hungarian monarchy collapsed with dramatic speed in the autumn of 1918. Leftist and pacifist political movements organized strikes in factories, and uprisings in the army had become commonplace. [ 63 ] As the war went on, the ethnic unity declined; the Allies encouraged breakaway demands from minorities and the Empire faced disintegration. [ 36 ] With apparent Allied victory approaching, nationalist movements seized ethnic resentment to erode social unity. The military breakdown of the Italian front marked the start of the rebellion for the numerous ethnicities who made up the multiethnic Empire, as they refused to keep on fighting for a cause that now appeared senseless. The Emperor had lost much of his power to rule, as his realm disintegrated. [ 63 ] On 14 October 1918, Foreign Minister Baron István Burián von Rajecz [ 64 ] asked for an armistice based on President Woodrow Wilson 's Fourteen Points and two days later Emperor Karl I issued a proclamation ("Imperial Manifesto of 16 October 1918") altering the empire into a federal union to give ethnic groups decentralization and representation. [ 65 ] However, on 18 October, United States Secretary of State Robert Lansing replied that autonomy for the nationalities – the tenth of the Fourteen Points – was no longer enough. In fact, a Czechoslovak provisional government had joined the Allies on 14 October. The South Slavs in both halves of the monarchy had already declared in favor of uniting with Serbia in a large South Slav state in the 1917 Corfu Declaration signed by members of the Yugoslav Committee . The Croatians had begun disregarding orders from Budapest earlier in October. Lansing's response was, in effect, the death certificate of Austria–Hungary. [ 64 ] [ 66 ] During the Italian battles, the Czechoslovaks and Southern Slavs declared their independence. With defeat in the war imminent after the Italian offensive in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto on 24 October, Czech politicians peacefully took over command in Prague on 28 October (later declared the birth of Czechoslovakia) and followed up in other major cities in the next few days. On 30 October, the Slovaks did the same. On 29 October, the Slavs in both portions of what remained of Austria–Hungary proclaimed the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and declared that their ultimate intention was to unite with Serbia and Montenegro in a large South Slav state . On the same day, the Czechs and Slovaks formally proclaimed the establishment of Czechoslovakia as an independent state. [ citation needed ] On 17 October 1918, the Hungarian Parliament voted in favour of terminating the union with Austria. The most prominent opponent of continued union with Austria, Count Mihály Károlyi , seized power in the Aster Revolution on 31 October. Charles was all but forced to appoint Károlyi as his Hungarian prime minister. One of Károlyi's first acts was to formally repudiate the compromise agreement on 31 October, effectively terminating the personal union with Austria and thus officially dissolving the Austro-Hungarian state. [ 67 ] By the end of October, there was nothing left of the Habsburg realm but its majority-German Danubian and Alpine provinces, and Karl's authority was being challenged even there by the German-Austrian state council. [ 68 ] Karl's last Austrian prime minister, Heinrich Lammasch , concluded that Karl's position was untenable. Lammasch persuaded Karl that the best course was to relinquish, at least temporarily, his right to exercise sovereign authority. On 11 November, Karl issued a carefully worded proclamation in which he recognized the Austrian people's right to determine the form of the state and "relinquish(ed) every participation" in Austrian state affairs. [ 69 ] On the day after he announced his withdrawal from Austrian politics, the German-Austrian National Council proclaimed the Republic of German Austria . Károlyi followed suit on 16 November, proclaiming the Hungarian Democratic Republic . [ citation needed ] ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ "Austria and Her Reforms" . The Westminster Review . New York: Leonard Scott & Co. April 1861 . Retrieved 15 April 2025 . ^ Kann 1974 ; Sked 1989 ; Taylor 1964 ^ Knickerbocker, Jonathan (1 January 2014). Osterreich und Anschluss : ponderous dilemma of Austrian identity (1848-1948) (Thesis). University at Albany, SUNY . doi : 10.54014/8PA9-EX2B . ^ a b Kann 1974 ^ Lesaffer, Randall (2021). "The War of 1866 and the Undoing of Vienna" . Oxford Public International Law . Archived from the original on 31 July 2021 . Retrieved 31 July 2021 . ^ Schmitt, Hans A. (1968). "Count Beust and Germany, 1866–1870: Reconquest, Realignment, or Resignation?". Central European History . 1 (1): 20– 34. doi : 10.1017/S000893890001476X . ISSN   0008-9389 . JSTOR   4545476 . S2CID   144762108 . ^ Roider, Karl A. ; Wagnleitner, Reinhold F.; Fellner, Fritz; Zöllner, Erich; Ray, Michael (28 November 2023). "History of Austria" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Archived from the original on 8 April 2024 . Retrieved 31 January 2024 . ^ Langer, William L. (1950). European Alliances and Alignments: 1871–1890 (2nd ed.). p. 20. ^ Wheatcroft, Andrew (28 April 2009). The Enemy at the Gate: Habsburgs, Ottomans and the Battle for Europe . Basic Books. p.  264 . ISBN   978-0-7867-4454-1 . ^ Albrecht-Carrié 1973 , chapter 6. ^ a b c d e f g Cite error: The named reference B was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Austria-Hungary - MSN Encarta . ^ Albrecht-Carrié 1973 , pp. 201–214. ^ "The Austrian Occupation of Novibazar, 1878–1909" . Mount HolyOak. Archived from the original on 19 January 2012 . Retrieved 24 March 2012 . ^ Albrecht-Carrié 1973 , chapter 8. ^ Albrecht-Carrié 1973 , pp. 259–272. ^ Gooch, 1936, pp 366–438. ^ Wank 2020 . ^ Bridge 1972 , pp. 338–339. ^ Langer, European Alliances and Alignments: 1871–1890 pp. 138, 155–6, 163 ^ Finestone, Jeffrey; Massie, Robert K. (1981). The last courts of Europe . Dent. p. 247. ISBN   978-0-4600-4519-3 . ^ Smith, David James (2010). One Morning in Sarajevo . Hachette UK. ISBN   978-0-2978-5608-5 . He was photographed on the way to the station and the photograph has been reproduced many times in books and articles, claiming to depict the arrest of Gavrilo Princip. But there is no photograph of Gavro's arrest – this photograph shows the arrest of Behr. ^ Djordjević, Dimitrije; Richard B. Spence (1992). Scholar, patriot, mentor: historical essays in honor of Dimitrije Djordjević . East European Monographs. p. 313. ISBN   978-0-8803-3217-0 . Following the assassination of Franz Ferdinand in June 1914, Catholic Croats and Muslims in Sarajevo joined forces in an anti-Serb pogrom. ^ Reports Service: Southeast Europe series . American Universities Field Staff. 1964. p. 44. Archived from the original on 3 October 2023 . Retrieved 7 December 2013 . ... the assassination was followed by officially encouraged anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo ... ^ Gioseffi, Daniela (1993). On Prejudice: A Global Perspective . Anchor Books. p.  246 . ISBN   978-0-3854-6938-8 . Retrieved 2 September 2013 . ... Andric describes the "Sarajevo frenzy of hate" that erupted among Muslims, Catholics, and Orthodox believers following the assassination on June 28, 1914, of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo ... ^ Mitrović, Andrej (2007). Serbia's Great War, 1914–1918 . Purdue University Press. p.  19 . ISBN   978-1-5575-3477-4 . ^ Tomasevich 2001 , p. 485, The Bosnian wartime militia (Schutzkorps), which became known for its persecution of Serbs, was overwhelmingly Muslim.. ^ Schindler, John R. (2007). Unholy Terror: Bosnia, Al-Qa'ida, and the Rise of Global Jihad . Zenith Imprint. p.  29 . ISBN   978-1-6167-3964-5 . ^ Kröll, Herbert (28 February 2008). Austrian-Greek encounters over the centuries: history, diplomacy, politics, arts, economics . Studienverlag. p. 55. ISBN   978-3-7065-4526-6 . ... arrested and interned some 5.500 prominent Serbs and sentenced to death some 460 persons, a new Schutzkorps, an auxiliary militia, widened the anti-Serb repression. ^ Ladislaus Count von Szögyény-Marich (Berlin) to Leopold Count von Berchtold (5 July 1914), in Ludwig Bittner, et al., eds., Österreich-Ungarns Aussenpolitik von der Bosnischen Krise 1908 bis zum Kriegsausbruch 1914 [Austria–Hungary's Foreign Policy prior to the Bosnian Crisis of 1908 up to the Outbreak of War in 1914]. 8 vols, Vienna, 1930, vol. 8, no. 10,058. ^ Cite error: The named reference firstworldwar was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Clark, Christopher (2013). The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914 . pp.  420– 430. ^ Pribram, A. F. (1923). Austrian Foreign Policy, 1908–18 . pp.  68– 128. ^ Zeman, Z.A.B. (Zbyněk Anthony Bohuslav) (1971). A Diplomatic History of the First World War . Weidenfeld and Nicolson. pp.  121– 161. OL   5388162M . ^ a b Stevenson, David (1988). The First World War and International Politics . pp.  139– 148. OL   21170640M . ^ Stevenson, David (1991). "The failure of peace by negotiation in 1917" . Historical Journal . 34 (1): 65– 86. doi : 10.1017/S0018246X00013935 . S2CID   154930518 . Archived from the original on 26 May 2023 . Retrieved 9 May 2023 . ^ Keleher, Edward P. (1992). "Emperor Karl and the Sixtus Affair: Politico-Nationalist Repercussions in the Reich German and Austro-German Camps, and the Disintegration of Habsburg Austria, 1916–1918". East European Quarterly . 26 (2): 163ff. ^ a b Schulze, Max-Stephan (2005). "Austria-Hungary's economy in World War I" (PDF) . In Broadberry, Stephen ; Harrison, Mark (eds.). The Economics of World War I . Cambridge University Press. p. 95. doi : 10.1017/CBO9780511497339.002 . ISBN   978-0-5218-5212-8 . S2CID   16455027 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 September 2018 . Retrieved 6 June 2018 – via library6.com. ^ Kann, Robert A.; et al., eds. (1977). The Habsburg Empire in World War I: Essays on the Intellectual, Military, Political and Economic Aspects of the Habsburg War Effort . ^ Mowat, C.L. (Charles Loch) (1968). The New Cambridge Modern History. volume xii . (Cambridge University Press Archive)London: Cambridge University Press. p. 479. ISBN   978-0-5210-4551-3 . ^ Kappeler, Andreas (2014). The Russian Empire: A Multi-ethnic History . Routledge. p. 287. ISBN   978-1-3175-6810-0 . ^ Cirkovic, Sima M. (2008). The Serbs Volume 10 of The Peoples of Europe . John Wiley & Sons. p. 235. ISBN   978-1-4051-4291-5 . ^ Rotar, Marius (2013). History of Modern Cremation in Romania . Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 24. ISBN   978-1-4438-4542-7 . ^ Broadberry & O'Rourke 2010 , p.  70 . ^ Stevenson, David (2011). With Our Backs to the Wall: Victory and Defeat in 1918 . Harvard University Press. p. 399. ISBN   978-0-6740-6319-8 . ^ Healy, Maureen (2007). Vienna and the Fall of the Habsburg Empire: Total War and Everyday Life in World War I . ^ Banac, Ivo (1992). " 'Emperor Karl Has Become a Comitadji': The Croatian Disturbances of Autumn 1918". Slavonic and East European Review . 70 (2): 284– 305. ^ Tucker, Spencer (1996). The European Powers in the First World War . Taylor & Francis. p.  173 . ISBN   978-0-8153-0399-2 . ^ Watson 2014 . ^ French forces occupy Corfu 2011 . ^ Burgwyn, H. James (1997). Italian foreign policy in the interwar period, 1918–1940 . Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 4. ISBN   978-0-2759-4877-1 . ^ Schindler, John R. (2001). Isonzo: The Forgotten Sacrifice of the Great War . ^ Cavallaro, Gaetano V. (2010). The Beginning of Futility: Diplomatic, Political, Military and Naval Events on the Austro-Italian Front in the First World War 1914–1917 . Vol. I. Xlibris Corporation. p. 339. ISBN   978-1-4010-8426-4 . ^ Lowry, Bullitt (2000). Armistice 1918 . Kent State University Press . p. 112. ISBN   978-0-8733-8651-7 . Archived from the original on 27 January 2024 . Retrieved 19 November 2023 . ^ Torrey, Glenn E. (1998). Romania and World War I . Histria Books. ^ Shanafelt, Gary W. (April 1999). "Review of Torrey, Glenn E., Romania and World War I: A Collection of Studies. HABSBURG" . H-Net Reviews . Archived from the original on 5 March 2023 . Retrieved 25 September 2019 . ^ See: 1910 census ^ Buranbaeva, Oksana; Mladineo, Vanja (2011). Culture and Customs of Hungary, Cultures and Customs of the World . Bonn, Germany: ABC-CLIO . p.  32 . ISBN   978-0-3133-8370-0 . ^ Bassett, Richard (2015). For God and Kaiser: The Imperial Austrian Army, 1619-1918 . Yale University Press. p.  506 . ISBN   978-0-3001-7858-6 . ^ Uyar, Mesut (2015). "Review of Austro-Hungarian War Aims in the Balkans during World War I" . Reviews in History . doi : 10.14296/RiH/2014/1846 . ^ Watson 2014 , p. 536. ^ a b Watson 2014 , pp. 536–540. ^ a b Nagy 2006 . ^ Giant, Tibor (October 1996). Through the Prism of the Habsburg Monarchy: Hungary in American Diplomacy and Public Opinion During the First World War (pdf thesis). University of Warwick . pp.  81– 82. Archived from the original on 14 August 2024. ^ Watson 2014 , pp. 541–542. ^ Cornelius, Deborah S. (2011). Hungary in World War II: Caught in the Cauldron . Fordham University Press . pp.  9– 10. ISBN   978-0-8232-3343-4 . Archived from the original on 10 November 2023 . Retrieved 2 December 2023 . ^ Watson 2014 , pp. 542–556. ^ The 1918 Karl's proclamation Archived 8 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine . British Library. Read more on Wikipedia →

Government Main article: Government of Austria-Hungary Hungarian Parliament building Austrian Parliament building The Compromise of 1867 turned the Habsburg domains into a real union between the Austrian Empire ("Lands Represented in the Imperial Council", or Cisleithania ) [ 1 ] in the western and northern half and the Kingdom of Hungary ("Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen", or Transleithania ) in the eastern half. [ 1 ] The government of Austria, which had ruled the monarchy until 1867, became the government of the Austrian part, and another government was formed for the Hungarian part. The common government (officially designated Ministerial Council for Common Affairs, or Ministerrat für gemeinsame Angelegenheiten in German) formed for the few matters of common national security - the Common Army , Navy , foreign policy and the imperial household, and the customs union. [ 2 ] Although the two halves shared a common monarch and both foreign relations and defense were managed jointly, all other state functions were to be handled separately as there was no common citizenship. [ a ] [ 1 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] Hungary and Austria maintained separate parliaments , each with its own prime minister : the Diet of Hungary (commonly known as the National Assembly) and the Imperial Council ( German : Reichsrat ) in Cisleithania. Each parliament had its own executive government, appointed by the monarch. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina came under Austro-Hungarian military and civilian rule [ 8 ] until it was fully annexed in 1908, provoking the Bosnian crisis with the Great Powers and Austria-Hungary's Balkan neighbors, Serbia and Montenegro . [ 9 ] Relations during the half-century after 1867 between the two parts of the dual monarchy featured repeated disputes over shared external tariff arrangements and over the financial contribution of each government to the common treasury. These matters were determined by the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, in which common expenditures were allocated 70% to Austria and 30% to Hungary. This division had to be renegotiated every ten years. There was political turmoil during the build-up to each renewal of the agreement. By 1907, the Hungarian share had risen to 36.4%. [ 10 ] The disputes culminated in the early 1900s in a prolonged constitutional crisis . It was triggered by disagreement over which language to use for command in Hungarian army units and deepened by the advent to power in Budapest in April 1906 of a Hungarian nationalist coalition. Provisional renewals of the common arrangements occurred in October 1907 and in November 1917 on the basis of the status quo . The negotiations in 1917 ended with the dissolution of the Dual Monarchy. [ 11 ] ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference ah1911 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Cite error: The named reference Kann 1974 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Compromise of 1867, Encyclopædia Britannica , 2007 ^ Roman 2003 , p. 401. ^ The New Encyclopædia Britannica . Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2003. ISBN   978-0-8522-9961-6 . ^ Péter, László (2011). Hungary's Long Nineteenth Century: Constitutional and Democratic Traditions in a European Perspective . Leiden, the Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill. ISBN   978-9-0042-2421-6 . ^ Balázs, Éva H. (1997). Hungary and the Habsburgs, 1765–1800: An Experiment in Enlightened Absolutism . Central European University Press . p. 320. ISBN   978-9-6391-1603-0 . ^ Minahan 1998 , p.  48 . ^ Cite error: The named reference b1911 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Kronenbitter, Günther (2003). "Krieg im Frieden". Die Führung der k.u.k. Armee und die Großmachtpolitik Österreich-Ungarns 1906–1914 (in German). Munich: Verlag Oldenbourg. p. 150. ISBN   3-4865-6700-4 . ^ Taylor 1964 Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). Read more on Wikipedia →

Culture A Highlander's Funeral (1860) by Polish painter Aleksander Kotsis , depicting a Podhale Gorál funeral in the Tatra Mountains Numerous cultural landmarks were created during the Austro-Hungarian period. Austria-Hungary was one of the centers of European Modernism. The association of artists later known as the Vienna Secession had a significant impact on European and global art. Many buildings constructed at that time continue to largely define the architectural character of the cities that were then part of the empire. Several cities across the former Austro-Hungarian Empire were often referred to as " Little Vienna " due to their architectural style, urban planning, and cultural life reflecting that of the imperial capital; among them were Bielsko-Biała , Lviv , Chernivtsi , Zagreb , Trieste , Cluj-Napoca , Timișoara , Graz , and Prague , where Ringstrasse-style boulevards, historicist architecture, and vibrant café culture mirrored Viennese models. The architectural firm Fellner & Helmer , established in Vienna by architects Ferdinand Fellner and Hermann Helmer , designed projects according to which 48 theatre buildings were constructed across Eastern Europe, including the Odessa Opera and Ballet Theatre . Michael Thonet , who moved to Austria in 1842 and lived in Vienna for the rest of his life, was the inventor of Viennese bentwood furniture. Art, architecture, and sculpture A substantial contribution to European culture, as well as to the cultures of the states that emerged after the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, was also made by artists, sculptors, and architects who were born, educated, and formed as cultural figures within the Habsburg Empire. Among them were: Germans: painters Gustav Klimt , Egon Schiele , and Koloman Moser ; architects Otto Wagner , Adolf Loos , and Josef Hoffmann ; sculptors Anton Hanak and Richard Luksch ; Czechs: painters Alphonse Mucha , František Kupka , Oskar Kokoschka , and Antonín Slavíček ; architects Jan Kotěra and Josef Gočár ; sculptors Stanislav Sucharda and Josef Václav Myslbek ; Slovaks: painters Peter Michal Bohúň , László Mednyánszky , and Mikuláš Galanda ; sculptor Ján Koniarek ; architect Dušan Jurkovič ; Hungarians: painters Mihály Munkácsy , Károly Ferenczy , and Tivadar Csontváry Kosztka ; architects Ödön Lechner , Imre Steindl , and Béla Lajta ; sculptors Alajos Stróbl and Zsigmond Kisfaludi Strobl ; Italians: painters Giovanni Segantini , Umberto Veruda , and Carlo Wostry ; sculptor Attilio Selva ; architect Max Fabiani ; Poles: painters Jan Matejko , Jacek Malczewski , Józef Mehoffer , and Stanisław Wyspiański (the latter also a writer); sculptors Xawery Dunikowski and Konstanty Laszczka ; architect Teodor Talowski ; Slovenes: Impressionist painters Ivan Grohar , Rihard Jakopič , Matej Sternen , and Matija Jama ; sculptors Franc Berneker and Lojze Dolinar ; architect Jože Plečnik ; Croats: painters Vlaho Bukovac and Bela Čikoš Sesija ; sculptors Ivan Meštrović , Robert Frangeš-Mihanović , Rudolf Valdec , and Ivan Rendić ; architects Viktor Kovačić and Herman Bollé ; Serbs: painters Paja Jovanović , Uroš Predić , and Stevan Aleksić ; sculptor Toma Rosandić ; architects Svetozar Ivačković , Dragiša Brašovan , and Branko Tanazević ; Romanians and Transylvanian Hungarians: painter Octavian Smigelschi , sculptor Cornel Medrea , and architect Károly Kós ; Ukrainians: painters Ivan Trush , Oleksa Novakivskyi , Adalbert Erdeli , Modest Sosenko and Teofil Kopystynskyi ; architects Ivan Levynskyi , Vasyl Nahirnyi , and Oleksandr Lushpynskyi ; sculptor Mykhailo Parashchuk . Music Composers of the Austro-Hungarian period made a significant contribution to world music. Vienna, renowned as the “capital of music” since the time of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven , continued to occupy a leading position both in academic music (represented by composers such as Anton Bruckner and Gustav Mahler ) and in light and popular music (including the Viennese waltzes of the Strauss dynasty and operetta, as exemplified by Johann Strauss II and Franz Lehár ). Arnold Schoenberg became the founder of atonal music and, as a result, one of the most influential composers of the twentieth century. The circle of Schoenberg's students and followers (including Anton Webern , Alban Berg , and others) became known as the Second Viennese School . At the same time, the multiethnic empire was home to musical figures who became classics of their respective national cultures—Hungarians Béla Bartók , Zoltán Kodály , and the German-speaking Hungarian Franz Liszt (whose name is traditionally rendered in Hungarian form as Ferenc in several Eastern European cultures); Czechs Antonín Dvořák , Bedřich Smetana , and Leoš Janáček ; the German composer of Slovene origin Hugo Wolf ; the Croatian composer Ivan Zajc ; the Romanian composer George Enescu (who studied at the Vienna Conservatory ); and the Jewish composer Erich Wolfgang Korngold , who later achieved fame in Hollywood . In the genre of operetta, notable figures included the Germans Franz von Suppé , Carl Millöcker , Carl Zeller , Leo Fall , and Carl Michael Ziehrer ; the Czech composer Oskar Nedbal ; and the Hungarians Imre Kálmán and Franz Lehár, whose works marked the Golden and Silver Age of Viennese operetta. Literature In the literary life of Austria-Hungary, representatives of all the peoples of the country took part. These included both German-language authors and writers working in their own languages, many of whom later became classics of literature in their newly formed states. Among the most well-known German-language authors of Austria-Hungary were Franz Kafka , Stefan Zweig , Hugo von Hofmannsthal , Arthur Schnitzler , Leopold von Sacher-Masoch , Rainer Maria Rilke , Joseph Roth , Max Brod , Franz Werfel , Hermann Broch , Nobel Peace Prize laureate Bertha von Suttner , and many others. Writers who lived in Austria-Hungary and later became important figures in the culture and literature of their newly formed states include: Hungarians Sándor Petőfi , Mór Jókai , Endre Ady , Imre Madách , Dezső Kosztolányi , Gyula Krúdy , Ludwig Hevesi ; Czechs Karel Čapek , Božena Němcová , Jaroslav Hašek , Jan Neruda , Alois Jirásek ; Slovaks Pavol Országh Hviezdoslav , Jozef Gregor-Tajovský , Martin Kukučín ; Poles Leopold Staff , Kazimierz Przerwa-Tetmajer , Stanisław Wyspiański , Bruno Schulz (the latter was a Polish-speaking Jew); Ukrainians Ivan Franko , Olha Kobylianska , Vasyl Stefanyk , Markiyan Shashkevych ; Croats Ivan Mažuranić , August Šenoa , Miroslav Krleža ; Serbs Ivo Andrić , Jovan Jovanović Zmaj , Svetozar Ćorović ; Slovenes France Prešeren , Ivan Cankar , Oton Župančič , Josip Murn , Dragotin Kette ; Romanians Mihai Eminescu (studied in Chernivtsi), Ioan Slavici , George Coșbuc ; Italians Italo Svevo , Umberto Saba , Scipio Slataper (all from Trieste); German-speaking Jews Paul Celan , Rose Ausländer ; Yiddish- and Hebrew-language Jewish writers Shmuel Yosef Agnon and others. In addition to literature written directly during the Austria-Hungary era, there is also a body of later fictional and memoir literature addressing the themes of the empire's collapse and nostalgia for the Habsburg Monarchy [ 1 ] (part of the so-called “Habsburg myth”, an idealised representation of Austria-Hungary during the era of Franz Joseph I ). These works include writings by authors who experienced the dissolution of the country in 1918 (such as Franz Theodor Csokor , who wrote the play 3 November 1918 about the collapse of Austria-Hungary, and Friedrich Schreyvogl  [ de ] ), as well as authors of later periods who addressed themes of loss of homeland, the collapse of a multiethnic world, nostalgia for the Habsburg Empire, and identity crisis. Among such works are Job (1930), Radetzky March (1932), and The Emperor’s Tomb (1938) by Joseph Roth ; The World of Yesterday (1942) by Stefan Zweig ; The Man Without Qualities (1930–1943) by Robert Musil ; the essay collection Danube (1986) by Claudio Magris ; The Tongue Set Free (1977) by Elias Canetti ; Memoirs of an Antisemite (1979) by Gregor von Rezzori ; and The Sleepwalkers (1930–1932) by Hermann Broch . In addition, there are authors who reflect in their work on the loss of Austria-Hungary as a homeland in specific regions, such as Joseph Zoderer , a German-language writer from South Tyrol, a region that passed to Italy after the war. Among contemporary works addressing nostalgia for Austria-Hungary is the novel Felix Austria by Ukrainian writer Sofia Andrukhovych . Cinema The history of Austrian cinema also began within Austria-Hungary. In Vienna in 1896, the Lumière brothers presented the first moving pictures in Austria, and until the establishment of the first Austrian film companies in the late 1910s, early film production remained very modest and was largely dominated by French firms. During World War I, numerous newsreels were produced depicting events at the front in a patriotic tone and were subject to imperial censorship. A large number of propaganda films were also produced, and 1918—the final year of Habsburg rule—became the most productive year in the monarchy's film industry, with around 100 feature films made. In Austria-Hungary, in the town of Sucha (now Sucha Beskidzka in Poland ), the American director Billy Wilder was born and raised; he later directed The Emperor Waltz , an operetta film set in early 20th-century Austria-Hungary. ^ Claudio Magris (2000). Der habsburgische Mythos in der modernen österreichischen Literatur (in German). p. 424. Read more on Wikipedia →

Economy Main article: Economy of Austria-Hungary A 20- crown banknote of the Dual Monarchy, using all official and recognized languages (the reverse side was Hungarian) Black Friday, 9 May 1873, Vienna Stock Exchange. The Panic of 1873 and Long Depression followed. The heavily rural Austro-Hungarian economy slowly modernised after 1867. Railroads opened up once-remote areas, and cities grew. Many small firms promoted capitalist way of production. Technological change accelerated industrialization and urbanization . The first Austrian stock exchange (the Wiener Börse ) was opened in 1771 in Vienna, the first stock exchange of the Kingdom of Hungary (the Budapest Stock Exchange ) was opened in Budapest in 1864. The central bank (Bank of issue) was founded as Austrian National Bank in 1816. In 1878, it transformed into Austro-Hungarian National Bank with principal offices in both Vienna and Budapest. [ 1 ] The central bank was governed by alternating Austrian or Hungarian governors and vice-governors. [ 2 ] Austria-Hungary also became the world's third-largest manufacturer and exporter of electric home appliances, electric industrial appliances, and power generation apparatus for power plants, after the United States and the German Empire, [ 3 ] and it constructed Europe's second-largest railway network, after the German Empire. In 2000, a study estimated that GDP in constant national prices in 1913 was 19,140.8 million for Cisleithania and 10,971.6 million for Transleithania, a combined 30,112.4 million krone . [ 4 ] [ a ] According to a 2005 study, GDP (PPP) in 1913 was 100,515 million 1990 Int$ , the fifth-largest in Europe. [ 5 ] The gross national product per capita grew roughly 1.76% per year from 1870 to 1913. That level of growth compared very favorably to that of other European nations such as Britain (1%), France (1.06%), and Germany (1.51%). [ 6 ] However, in a comparison with Germany and Britain, the Austro-Hungarian economy as a whole still lagged considerably, as sustained modernization had begun much later. Like the German Empire, that of Austria–Hungary frequently employed liberal economic policies and practices. In 1873, the old Hungarian capital Buda and Óbuda (Ancient Buda) were officially merged with the third city, Pest, thus creating the new metropolis of Budapest. The dynamic Pest grew into Hungary's administrative, political, economic, trade and cultural hub. Many of the state institutions and the modern administrative system of Hungary were established during this period. Economic growth centered on Vienna and Budapest, the Austrian lands (areas of modern Austria), the Alpine region and the Bohemian lands. In the later years of the 19th century, rapid economic growth spread to the central Hungarian plain and to the Carpathian lands. As a result, wide disparities of development existed within the empire. In general, the western areas became more developed than the eastern ones. The Kingdom of Hungary became the world's second-largest flour exporter after the United States. [ 7 ] The large Hungarian food exports were not limited to neighbouring Germany and Italy: Hungary became the most important foreign food supplier of the large cities and industrial centres of the United Kingdom. [ 8 ] Galicia, which has been described as the poorest province of Austro-Hungary, experienced near-constant famines , resulting in 50,000 deaths a year. [ 9 ] The Istro-Romanians of Istria were also poor, as pastoralism lost strength and agriculture was not productive. [ 10 ] However, by the end of the 19th century, economic differences gradually began to even out as economic growth in the eastern parts of the monarchy consistently surpassed that in the western. The strong agriculture and food industry of the Kingdom of Hungary with the centre of Budapest became predominant within the empire and made up a large proportion of the export to the rest of Europe. Meanwhile, western areas, concentrated mainly around Prague and Vienna, excelled in various manufacturing industries. This division of labour between the east and west, besides the existing economic and monetary union , led to an even more rapid economic growth throughout Austria–Hungary by the early 20th century. However, since the turn of the twentieth century, the Austrian half of the Monarchy could preserve its dominance within the empire in the sectors of the Industrial Revolution , but Hungary had a better position in the modern industries of the Second Industrial Revolution , in these modern sectors of the second industrial revolution (like machine building industry and electric industry) the Austrian competition could not become dominant. [ 11 ] During the late 19th century, the Austrian half of the empire introduced a series of labour laws regulating industrial working conditions. During the ministry of Count Eduard Taaffe , factory inspectors were introduced to monitor compliance with labour regulations. [ 12 ] A major reform enacted in 1885 prohibited industrial employment for children under the age of 14 and limited the working day of older minors to 11 hours. [ 13 ] ^ Barcsay, Thomas (1991). "Banking in Hungarian Economic Development, 1867–1919" (PDF) . Ryeson Polytechnical Institute. p. 216. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 November 2014 . Retrieved 28 August 2016 . ^ Sugar & Hanak 1990 , p. 262. ^ Publishers' Association, Booksellers Association of Great Britain and Ireland (1930). The Publisher . Vol. 133. p. 355. ^ Schulze, Max-Stephan (2000). "Patterns of growth and stagnation in the late nineteenth century Habsburg economy" . European Review of Economic History . 4 (3): 311– 340, 337– 338. doi : 10.1017/S1361491600000095 . ^ Schulze 2005 , p. 79. ^ Cite error: The named reference economic was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Schulze 1996 , p. 80. ^ Commercial Relations of the United States: Reports from the Consuls of the United States on the Commerce, Manufactures, Etc., of Their Consular Districts. Publisher: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1881 (page: 371) ^ Davies, Norman (24 February 2005). God's Playground A History of Poland: Volume II: 1795 to the Present . Oxford University Press. pp.  106–108 . ISBN   978-0-1992-5340-1 . ^ Cite error: The named reference istro was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Berend, Iván T. (2013). Case Studies on Modern European Economy: Entrepreneurship, Inventions, and Institutions . Routledge. p.  151 . ISBN   978-1-1359-1768-5 . ^ "Historisches" . Arbeitsinspektion. ^ Ten-Hour Maximum Working-Day for Women and Young Persons (PDF) . International Labor Office. 1913. pp. 15, 68. Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). Read more on Wikipedia →

Military Main article: Austro-Hungarian Armed Forces Military parade in Prague , Kingdom of Bohemia , 1900 The Austro-Hungarian Army was under the command of Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen (1817–1895), an old-fashioned bureaucrat who opposed modernization. [ 1 ] The military system of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy was similar in both states, and rested since 1868 upon the principle of the universal and personal obligation of the citizen to bear arms. Its military force was composed of the Common Army ; the special armies, namely the Austrian Landwehr , and the Hungarian Honvéd , which were separate national institutions, and the Landsturm or levy-en masse. As stated above, the common army stood under the administration of the joint minister of war, while the special armies were under the administration of the respective ministries of national defence. The yearly contingent of recruits for the army was fixed by the military bills voted on by the Austrian and Hungarian parliaments and was generally determined on the basis of the population, according to the last census returns. It amounted in 1905 to 103,100 men, of which Austria furnished 59,211 men, and Hungary 43,889. Besides 10,000 men were annually allotted to the Austrian Landwehr, and 12,500 to the Hungarian Honved. The term of service was two years (three years in the cavalry) with the colours, seven or eight in the reserve and two in the Landwehr; in the case of men not drafted to the active army the same total period of service was spent in various special reserves. [ 2 ] The common minister of war was the head for the administration of all military affairs, except those of the Austrian Landwehr and of the Hungarian Honved, which were committed to the ministries for national defence of the two respective states. But the supreme command of the army was nominally vested in the monarch, who had the power to take all measures regarding the whole army. In practice, the emperor's nephew Archduke Albrecht was his chief military advisor and made the policy decisions. [ 2 ] The Austro-Hungarian Navy was mainly a coast defence force, and also included a flotilla of monitors for the Danube. It was administered by the naval department of the ministry of war. [ 3 ] ^ Gunther Rothenburg, The Army of Francis Joseph (1976). ^ a b   One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Headlam, James Wycliffe (1911b). " Austria-Hungary ". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 3 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 3. ^ Headlam 1911b , p. 4. Read more on Wikipedia →