Julius Caesar

Early life and career Gaius Julius Caesar was born into a patrician family, the gens Julia , on 12 or 13 July 100 BC. [ 1 ] The family claimed to have immigrated to Rome from Alba Longa during the seventh century BC after the third king of Rome , Tullus Hostilius , took and destroyed their city. The family also claimed descent from Julus , the son of Aeneas and founder of Alba Longa. Given that Aeneas was a son of Venus , this made the clan divine. This genealogy had not yet taken its final form by the first century, but the clan's claimed descent from Venus was well established in public consciousness. [ 2 ] There is no evidence that Caesar himself was born by Caesarian section ; such operations entailed the death of the mother, but Caesar's mother lived for decades after his birth and no ancient sources record any difficulty with the birth. [ 3 ] Despite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares were not especially politically influential during the middle republic. The first person known to have had the cognomen Caesar was a praetor in 208 BC during the Second Punic War . The family's first consul was in 157 BC, though their political fortunes had recovered in the early first century, producing two consuls in 91 and 90 BC. [ 4 ] Caesar's homonymous father was moderately successful politically. He married Aurelia , a member of the politically influential Aurelii Cottae , producing – along with Caesar – two daughters. Buoyed by his own marriage and the marriage of his sister to the extremely influential Gaius Marius , he also served on the Saturninian land commission in 103 BC and was elected praetor some time between 92 and 85 BC; he served as proconsular governor of Asia for two years, likely 91–90 BC. [ 5 ] Life under Sulla and military service Sulla, depicted on the obverse of a denarius minted by Quintus Pompeius Rufus in 54 BC. Sulla took the city in 82 BC, purged his political enemies, and instituted new constitutional reforms . Caesar's father did not seek a consulship during the domination of Lucius Cornelius Cinna and instead chose retirement. [ 6 ] During Cinna's dominance, Caesar was named as flamen Dialis (a priest of Jupiter ) which led to his marriage to Cinna's daughter, Cornelia . The religious taboos of the priesthood would have forced Caesar to forgo a political career; the appointment – one of the highest non-political honours – indicates that there were few expectations of a major career for Caesar. [ 7 ] In early 84 BC, Caesar's father died suddenly. [ 8 ] After Sulla 's victory in the civil war (82 BC), Cinna's acta were annulled. Sulla consequently ordered Caesar to abdicate and divorce Cinna's daughter. Caesar refused, implicitly questioning the legitimacy of Sulla's annulment. Sulla may have put Caesar on the proscription lists , though scholars are mixed. [ 9 ] Caesar then went into hiding before his relatives and contacts among the Vestal Virgins were able to intercede on his behalf. [ 10 ] They then reached a compromise where Caesar would resign his priesthood but keep his wife and chattels; Sulla's alleged remark he saw "in [Caesar] many Mariuses " [ 11 ] is apocryphal. [ 12 ] Imperial period bust of Augustus (known as the Augustus Bevilacqua ) wearing the civic crown ( Latin : corona civica ). Caesar won the civic crown for his bravery at the Siege of Mytilene in 81 BC. Caesar then left Italy to serve in the staff of the governor of Asia , Marcus Minucius Thermus . While there, he travelled to Bithynia to collect naval reinforcements and stayed some time as a guest of the king, Nicomedes IV , though later invective connected Caesar to a homosexual relation with the monarch. [ 13 ] [ 14 ] He then served at the Siege of Mytilene where he won the civic crown for saving the life of a fellow citizen in battle. The privileges of the crown – the Senate was supposed to stand on a holder's entrance and holders were permitted to wear the crown at public occasions – whetted Caesar's appetite for honours. After the capture of Mytilene, Caesar transferred to the staff of Publius Servilius Vatia in Cilicia before learning of Sulla's death in 78 BC and returning home immediately. [ 15 ] He was alleged to have wanted to join in on the consul Lepidus ' revolt that year [ 16 ] but this is likely literary embellishment of Caesar's desire for tyranny from a young age. [ 17 ] Afterward, Caesar attacked some of the Sullan aristocracy in the courts but was unsuccessful in his attempted prosecution of Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella in 77 BC, who had recently returned from a proconsulship in Macedonia . Going after a less well-connected senator, he was successful the next year in prosecuting Gaius Antonius Hybrida (later consul in 63 BC) for profiteering from the proscriptions but was forestalled when a tribune interceded on Antonius' behalf. [ 18 ] After these oratorical attempts, Caesar left Rome for Rhodes seeking the tutelage of the rhetorician Apollonius Molon . [ 19 ] While travelling, he was intercepted and ransomed by pirates in a story that was later much embellished. According to Plutarch and Suetonius, he was freed after paying a ransom of fifty talents and responded by returning with a fleet to capture and execute the pirates. The recorded sum for the ransom is literary embellishment and it is more likely that the pirates were sold into slavery per Velleius Paterculus . [ 20 ] His studies were interrupted by the outbreak of the Third Mithridatic War over the winter of 75 and 74 BC; Caesar is alleged to have gone around collecting troops in the province at the locals' expense and leading them successfully against Mithridates' forces. [ 21 ] Entrance to politics While absent from Rome, in 73 BC, Caesar was co-opted into the pontifices in place of his deceased relative Gaius Aurelius Cotta . The promotion marked him as a well-accepted member of the aristocracy with great future prospects in his political career. [ 22 ] Caesar decided to return shortly thereafter and on his return was elected one of the military tribunes for 71 BC. [ 23 ] There is no evidence that Caesar served in war – even though the war on Spartacus was ongoing – during his term; he did, however, agitate for the removal of Sulla's disabilities on the plebeian tribunate and for those who supported Lepidus' revolt to be pardoned. [ 24 ] These advocacies were common and uncontroversial. [ 25 ] The next year, 70 BC, Pompey and Crassus were consuls and brought legislation restoring the plebeian tribunate's rights; one of the tribunes, with Caesar supporting, then brought legislation pardoning the Lepidan exiles. [ 26 ] For his quaestorship in 69 BC, Caesar was allotted to serve under Gaius Antistius Vetus in Hispania Ulterior . His election also gave him a lifetime seat in the Senate. However, before he left, his aunt Julia, the widow of Marius, died; and, soon afterwards, his wife Cornelia died shortly after bearing his only legitimate child, Julia . He gave eulogies for both at public funerals. [ 27 ] During his aunt's funeral, Caesar displayed the images of Marius, whose memory had been suppressed after Sulla's victory in the civil war. Some of the Sullan nobles – including Quintus Lutatius Catulus – who had suffered under the Marian regime objected, but by this point depictions of husbands in aristocratic women's funerary processions was common. [ 28 ] Contra Plutarch, [ 29 ] Caesar's action here was likely in keeping with a political trend for reconciliation and normalisation rather than a display of renewed factionalism. [ 30 ] Caesar quickly remarried, taking the hand of Sulla's granddaughter Pompeia . [ 31 ] Aedileship and election as pontifex maximus For much of this period, Caesar was one of Pompey 's supporters. Caesar joined with Pompey in the late 70s to support restoration of tribunician rights; his support for the law recalling the Lepidan exiles may have been related to the same tribune's bill to grant lands to Pompey's veterans. Caesar also supported the lex Gabinia in 67 BC granting Pompey an extraordinary command against piracy in the Mediterranean and also supported the lex Manilia in 66 BC to reassign the Third Mithridatic War from its then-commander Lucullus to Pompey. [ 32 ] Denarius of C. Cossutius Maridianus , 44 BC, with the head of Julius Caesar as pontifex maximus on the obverse. The legend on the reverse mentions the A. A. A. F. F. Four years after his aunt Julia's funeral, in 65 BC, Caesar served as curule aedile and staged lavish games that won him further attention and popular support. [ 33 ] He also restored the trophies won by Marius, and taken down by Sulla, over Jugurtha and the Cimbri . [ 34 ] According to Plutarch's narrative, the trophies were restored overnight to the applause and tears of joy of the onlookers; however, any sudden and secret restoration of this sort would not have been possible – architects, restorers, and other workmen would have to have been hired and paid for – nor would it have been likely that the work could have been done in a single night. [ 35 ] It is more likely that Caesar was merely restoring his family's public monuments – consistent with standard aristocratic practice and the virtue of pietas – and, over objections from Catulus, these actions were broadly supported by the Senate. [ 36 ] In 63 BC, Caesar stood for the praetorship and also for the post of pontifex maximus , [ 37 ] who was the head of the College of Pontiffs and the highest ranking state religious official. In the pontifical election before the tribes , Caesar faced two influential senators: Quintus Lutatius Catulus and Publius Servilius Isauricus . Caesar came out victorious. Many scholars have expressed astonishment that Caesar's candidacy was taken seriously, but this was not without historical precedent. [ 38 ] Ancient sources allege that Caesar paid huge bribes or was shamelessly ingratiating; [ 39 ] that no charge was ever laid alleging this implies that bribery alone is insufficient to explain his victory. [ 40 ] If bribes or other monies were needed, they may have been underwritten by Pompey, whom Caesar at this time supported and who opposed Catulus' candidacy. [ 41 ] Many sources also assert that Caesar supported the land reform proposals brought that year by plebeian tribune Publius Servilius Rullus , however, there are no ancient sources so attesting. [ 42 ] Caesar also engaged in a collateral manner in the trial of Gaius Rabirius by one of the plebeian tribunes – Titus Labienus – for the murder of Saturninus in accordance with a senatus consultum ultimum some forty years earlier. [ 43 ] [ 44 ] The most famous event of the year was the Catilinarian conspiracy . While some of Caesar's enemies, including Catulus, alleged that he participated in the conspiracy, [ 45 ] the chance that he was a participant is extremely small. [ 46 ] Praetorship Caesar won his election to the praetorship in 63 BC easily and, as one of the praetor-elects, spoke out that December in the Senate against executing certain citizens who had been arrested in the city conspiring with Gauls in furtherance of the conspiracy. [ 47 ] Caesar's proposal at the time is not entirely clear. The earlier sources assert that he advocated life imprisonment without trial; the later sources assert he instead wanted the conspirators imprisoned pending trial. Most accounts agree that Caesar supported confiscation of the conspirators' property. [ 48 ] Caesar likely advocated the former, which was a compromise position that would place the Senate within the bounds of the lex Sempronia de capite civis , and was initially successful in swaying the body; a later intervention by Cato , however, swayed the Senate at the end for execution. [ 49 ] Cicero , consul in 63 BC, depicted in an 1889 fresco denouncing Catiline and exposing his conspiracy before the Senate. When conspirators within the city were later arrested, Cicero referred their fate to the Senate, triggering a debate in which Caesar as praetor-elect participated. During his year as praetor, Caesar first attempted to deprive his enemy Catulus of the honour of completing the rebuilt Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus , accusing him of embezzling funds, and threatening to bring legislation to reassign it to Pompey. This proposal was quickly dropped amid near-universal opposition. [ 50 ] He then supported the attempt by plebeian tribune Metellus Nepos to transfer the command against Catiline from the consul of 63, Gaius Antonius Hybrida, to Pompey. After a violent meeting of the comitia tributa in the forum, where Metellus came into fisticuffs with his tribunician colleagues Cato and Quintus Minucius Thermus , [ 51 ] the Senate passed a decree against Metellus – Suetonius claims that both Nepos and Caesar were deposed from their magistracies; this would have been a constitutional impossibility [ 52 ] – which led Caesar to distance himself from the proposals: hopes for a provincial command and need to repair relations with the aristocracy took priority. [ 53 ] He also was engaged in the Bona Dea affair, where Publius Clodius Pulcher sneaked into Caesar's house sacrilegiously during a female religious observance; Caesar avoided any part of the affair by divorcing his wife immediately – claiming that his wife needed to be "above suspicion" [ 54 ] – but there is no indication that Caesar supported Clodius in any way. [ 55 ] Bronze bust of Cato, Caesar's principal opponent in the Catilinarian debate and also a personal enemy. Cato may have been responsible for the law requiring declarations of candidacy in person within the pomerium . [ 56 ] After his praetorship, Caesar was appointed to govern Hispania Ulterior pro consule . [ 57 ] Deeply indebted from his campaigns for the praetorship and for the pontificate, Caesar required military victory beyond the normal provincial extortion to pay them off. [ 58 ] He campaigned against the Callaeci and Lusitani and seized the Callaeci capital in northwestern Spain, bringing Roman troops to the Atlantic and seizing enough plunder to pay his debts. [ 59 ] Claiming to have completed the peninsula's conquest, he made for home after having been hailed imperator . [ 60 ] When he arrived home in the summer of 60 BC, he was then forced to choose between a triumph and election to the consulship: either he could remain outside the pomerium (Rome's sacred boundary) awaiting a triumph or cross the boundary, giving up his command and triumph, to make a declaration of consular candidacy. [ 61 ] Attempts to waive the requirement for the declaration to be made in person were filibustered in the Senate by Caesar's enemy Cato, even though the Senate seemed to support the exception. [ 62 ] Faced with the choice between a triumph and the consulship, Caesar chose the consulship. [ 63 ] ^ Badian 2009 , p. 16, pursuant to Macr. Sat. 1.12.34, quoting a law by Mark Antony noting the date as the fourth day before the Ides of Quintilis. Only Dio gives 13 July. All sources give the year 100 BC. ^ Goldsworthy 2006 , pp. 32–33. ^ Goldsworthy 2006 , p. 35. ^ Badian 2009 , p. 14; Goldsworthy 2006 , pp. 31–32. The consul of 157 BC was Sextus Caesar ; the consuls of 91 and 90 were Sextus Caesar and Lucius Caesar , respectively. ^ Badian 2009 , p. 15 dates the land commission to 103 per MRR 3.109; Goldsworthy 2006 , pp. 33–34; Broughton 1952 , p. 22, dating the proconsulship to 91 with praetorship in 92 BC and citing, among others, CIL I, 705 and CIL I, 706 . ^ Badian 2009 , p. 16. ^ Badian 2009 , p. 16. Badian cites Suet. Iul. , 1.2 arguing that Caesar was actually appointed; because a divorced man could not be flamen Dialis , the assertion that Caesar married one Cossutia then divorced her to marry Cornelia and become flamen in Plut. Caes. , 5.3 is incorrect. ^ Goldsworthy 2006 , p. 34. ^ Badian 2009 , pp. 16–17, stating Caesar was placed on the lists. Cf, stating Caesar was only summoned for interrogation, Hinard, François (1985). Les proscriptions de la Rome républicaine (in French). Ecole française de Rome. p. 64. ISBN   978-2-7283-0094-5 . OCLC   1006100534 . ^ Badian 2009 , pp. 16–17, also rejecting claims that Caesar hid by bribing his pursuers: "this is an example of how the [Caesar myth] pervades our accounts and makes it difficult to get at the facts... [that he bribed his pursuers] cannot be true, since confiscation of his fortune went with his proscription". ^ Plut. Caes. , 1.4; Suet. Iul. , 1.3. ^ Badian 2009 , p. 17, noting also that Sulla never killed any fellow patricians. ^ Badian 2009 , pp. 17–18. ^ Suet. Iul. , 2–3; Plut. Caes. , 2–3; Dio , 43.20. ^ Badian 2009 , p. 17. ^ Badian 2009 , p. 18, citing Suet. Iul. , 3. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021 , p. 35. ^ Alexander 1990 , p. 71 (Trial 140) noting also that Tac. Dial. , 34.7 wrongly places the trial in 79 BC; Alexander 1990 , pp. 71–72 (Trial 141). ^ Badian 2009 , p. 18. ^ Pelling, C B R (2011). Plutarch: Caesar . Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp.  139– 41. ISBN   978-0-19-814904-0 . OCLC   772240772 . Vell. Pat. , 2.42.3 reports that the governor wanted to enslave and sell the pirates but that Caesar returned quickly and had them executed. Pelling believes the second part of Vell. Pat.'s narrative – along with other sources ( Plut. Caes. , 1.8–2.7; Suet. Iul. , 4) – are literary embellishment and that the pirates were enslaved and sold. ^ Badian 2009 , p. 19, calling the story in Suet. Iul. , 4.2 that Caesar called up auxiliaries and with them drove Mithridates' prefect from the province of Asia, "a striking example of the Caesar myth... [that is] difficult to believe". ^ Goldsworthy 2006 , p. 78. ^ Badian 2009 , p. 19; Broughton 1952 , pp. 114, 125; Vell. Pat. , 2.43.1 (pontificate); Plut. Caes. , 5.1 and Suet. Iul. , 5 (military tribunate). ^ Badian 2009 , p. 19, citing Suet. Iul. , 5. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021 , p. 63. ^ Badian 2009 , pp. 19–20, also noting senatorial support for the pardons; Broughton 1952 , pp. 126, 128, 130 n. 4, argues the tribunician law recalling the Lepidan exiles must postdate the consular law in 70 which removed Sulla's suppression of tribunician legislative initiative. ^ Badian 2009 , p. 20; Broughton 1952 , p. 132. Badian 2009 , p. 21 cites Suet. Iul. , 6.1 for the incipit of Caesar's eulogy. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021 , p. 43. ^ Plut. Caes. , 5.2–3. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021 , pp. 43–46. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021 , p. 46, noting also that Plutarch omits this detail likely because it "would indeed have been embarrassing for his Marian representation of Caesar" (internal citations and quotation marks omitted). ^ Gruen 1995 , p. 79–80. ^ Mouritsen, Henrik (2001). Plebs and politics in the late Roman Republic . Cambridge University Press. p. 97. ISBN   0-511-04114-4 . OCLC   56761502 . See also Broughton 1952 , p. 158 and Plut. Caes. , 6.1–4. ^ Broughton 1952 , p. 158. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021 , pp. 46–47. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021 , pp. 48–49. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021 , pp. 64, 64 n. 129, noting that it is not clear which election was first; it is more likely, however, that elections were late and therefore that the pontifical election occurred first. Dio's claim of elections in December is clearly erroneous. Broughton 1952 , p. 172 n. 3. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021 , pp. 64–65, noting the victory of curule aedile Publius Licinius Crassus in 212 over senior consulars and plebeian tribune Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus over consulars. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021 , p. 66, citing Suet. Iul. , 13; Plut. Caes. , 7.1–4; Dio , 37.37.1–3. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021 , pp. 67–68. ^ Gruen 1995 , pp. 80–81. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021 , p. 69 n. 148. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021 , p. 71. ^ Alexander 1990 , p. 110 (Trials 220–21). ^ Gruen 1995 , p. 80, citing Sall. Cat. , 49.1–2. See also Suet. Iul. , 17. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021 , pp. 72–77, placing it around 2.5 per cent. Gruen 1995 , p. 429 n. 107 calls the view that Caesar was one of the masterminds of the conspiracy "long... discredited and requires no further refutation". ^ Morstein-Marx 2021 , pp. 85–86, 90. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021 , p. 92. Earlier sources being Cic. Cat. , 4.8–10 and Sall. Cat. , 51.42. Later sources include Plut. Caes. , 7.9 and App. BCiv. , 2.6. ^ Gruen 1995 , pp. 281–82. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021 , p. 102. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021 , pp. 102–04. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021 , p. 107, citing Suet. Iul. , 16. Dio reports a senatus consultum ultimum . Broughton 1952 , p. 173, citing Dio , 37.41. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021 , p. 109. ^ Plut. Caes. , 10.9. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021 , p. 110, adding in notes that the affair is usually interpreted as an attempt to destroy Clodius' career and that Caesar may have been a secondary target due to expectations that he would reject political pressure for a divorce. ^ Drogula 2019 , pp. 97–98. ^ Broughton 1952 , pp. 173, 180. Most sources give a proconsular dignity. After the Sullan era, all magistrates were prorogued pro consule . Badian, Ernst; Lintott, Andrew (2016). "pro consule, pro praetore" . Oxford Classical Dictionary . Oxford University Press. doi : 10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.5337 . ISBN   978-0-19-938113-5 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: periodical has ISBN ( link ) ^ Morstein-Marx 2021 , pp. 109–10. ^ Broughton 1952 , p. 180. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021 , pp. 110–11. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021 , p. 111. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021 , pp. 112–13. ^ Morstein-Marx 2021 , p. 114; Plut. Caes. , 13; Suet. Iul. , 18.2.

Read more on Wikipedia →

Literary works Julii Caesaris quae exstant (1678) A 1783 edition of The Gallic Wars During his lifetime, Caesar was regarded as one of the best orators and prose authors in Latin – even Cicero spoke highly of Caesar's rhetoric and style. [ 1 ] Only Caesar's war commentaries have survived. A few sentences from other works are quoted by other authors. Among his lost works are his funeral oration for his paternal aunt Julia and his " Anticato ", a document attacking Cato in response to Cicero's eulogy. Poems by Julius Caesar are also mentioned in ancient sources. [ 2 ] Memoirs The Commentarii de Bello Gallico , usually known in English as The Gallic Wars , seven books each covering one year of his campaigns in Gaul and southern Britain in the 50s BC, with the eighth book written by Aulus Hirtius on the last two years. The Commentarii de Bello Civili ( The Civil War ), events of the Civil War from Caesar's perspective, until immediately after Pompey's death in Egypt. Other works historically have been attributed to Caesar, but their authorship is in doubt: De Bello Alexandrino ( On the Alexandrine War ), campaign in Alexandria; De Bello Africo ( On the African War ), campaigns in North Africa; and De Bello Hispaniensi ( On the Hispanic War ), campaigns in the Iberian Peninsula . These narratives were written and published annually during or just after the actual campaigns, as a sort of "dispatches from the front". They were important in shaping Caesar's public image and enhancing his reputation when he was away from Rome for long periods. They may have been presented as public readings. [ 3 ] As a model of clear and direct Latin style, The Gallic Wars traditionally has been studied by first- or second-year Latin students. ^ Cic. Brut. , 252 . ^ Courtney, Edward, ed. (1993). The fragmentary Latin poets . Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp.  153– 55, 187– 88. ISBN   0-19-814775-9 . OCLC   25628739 . ^ Wiseman, T P (2009). "The publication of De bello Gallico ". In Welch, Kathryn; Powell, Anton (eds.). Julius Caesar as artful reporter: the war commentaries as political instruments . Classical Press of Wales. ISBN   978-1-905125-28-9 .

Read more on Wikipedia →

Legacy Further information: List of things named after Julius Caesar and Caesar cipher Historiography Flowers on the remains of the altar of Caesar in the Roman Forum of Rome, Italy The texts written by Caesar, an autobiography of the most important events of his public life, are the most complete primary source for the reconstruction of his biography. However, Caesar wrote those texts with his political career in mind. [ 1 ] Julius Caesar is also considered one of the first historical figures to fold his message scrolls into a concertina form, which made them easier to read. [ 2 ] The Roman emperor Augustus began a cult of personality of Caesar, which described Augustus as Caesar's political heir. The modern historiography is influenced by this tradition. [ 3 ] Many rulers in history became interested in the historiography of Caesar . Napoleon III wrote the scholarly work Histoire de Jules César , which was not finished. The second volume listed previous rulers interested in the topic. Charles VIII ordered a monk to prepare a translation of the Gallic Wars in 1480. Charles V ordered a topographic study in France, to place the Gallic Wars in context; which created forty high-quality maps of the conflict. The contemporary Ottoman sultan Suleiman the Magnificent catalogued the surviving editions of the Commentaries , and translated them to Turkish language. The French kings Henry IV and Louis XIII translated the first two commentaries and the last two respectively; Louis XIV re-translated the first one afterwards. [ 4 ] The remains of Caesar's altar are a pilgrimage site for visitors from across Italy and the world. Flowers and other items are left there daily and special commemorations take place on 15 March to commemorate Caesar's death. [ 5 ] [ 6 ] Politics Main article: Caesarism Julius Caesar is seen as the main example of Caesarism , a form of political rule led by a charismatic strongman whose rule is based upon a cult of personality , whose rationale is the need to rule by force, establishing a violent social order , and being a regime involving prominence of the military in the government. [ 7 ] Other people in history, such as the French Napoleon Bonaparte and the Italian Benito Mussolini , have defined themselves as Caesarists. [ 8 ] [ 9 ] Bonaparte did not focus only on Caesar's military career but also on his relation with the masses, a predecessor to populism . [ 10 ] The word is also used in a pejorative manner by critics of this type of political rule. Depictions Main article: Cultural depictions of Julius Caesar Bust in the National Archaeological Museum, Naples Modern bronze statue of Julius Caesar, Rimini, Italy Portrait at the Archaeological Museum of Sparta Bronze statue at the Porta Palatina in Turin Bust in the Archaeological Museum of Corinth Late 17th century statue by Nicolas Coustou Battle record ^ Canfora 2006 , pp. 10–11 ^ Murray, Stuart (2009). The library: an illustrated history . Skyhorse Publishing. ISBN   978-1-60239-706-4 . OCLC   277203534 . ^ Canfora 2006 , p. 10 ^ Canfora 2006 , pp. 11–12 ^ Nicoletti, Gianluca (22 July 2014). "Il mondo in fila" . La Stampa (in Italian) . Retrieved 24 May 2024 . ^ Quaglia, Lucilla (15 March 2019). "Sempre più fiori e monetine sull'Ara di Cesare: la tradizione si rinnova il 15 marzo" . Il Messaggero (in Italian) . Retrieved 24 May 2024 . ^ Weber 2008 , p. 34. ^ Brown, Howard G. (29 June 2007). "Napoleon Bonaparte, Political Prodigy". History Compass . 5 (4). Wiley : 1382– 98. doi : 10.1111/j.1478-0542.2007.00451.x . ^ Hartfield, James (2012). Unpatriotic History of the Second World War . John Hunt Publishing. p. 77. ISBN   978-1-78099-379-9 . Archived from the original on 28 December 2019 . Retrieved 20 August 2019 . ^ Canfora 2006 , pp. 12–13

Read more on Wikipedia →