Mark Antony

Marcus Antonius, known in English as Mark Antony, was Julius Caesar's leading lieutenant and, after Caesar's murder, one of the three men who ruled the Roman world. Born in 83 BCE, he governed the eastern provinces in partnership with Cleopatra VII of Egypt until his rivalry with Caesar's heir Octavian ended in defeat at Actium in 31 BCE and his suicide the following year. His fall cleared the way for Octavian to become Augustus, the first Roman emperor. His reputation still bears the marks of Cicero's speeches and of Octavian's propaganda.

Antony was born in Rome on 14 January 83 BCE into a plebeian noble family; his mother, Julia, was a distant cousin of Julius Caesar. Plutarch describes a youth of gambling, drinking and love affairs. His military career began in 57 BCE as a cavalry commander under Gabinius, governor of Syria, with whom he fought in Judea and helped restore Ptolemy XII to the Egyptian throne.

From 54 BCE Antony served on Caesar's staff in Gaul. As a tribune in January 49 BCE he defended Caesar's interests in the senate, then fled to join him as civil war began. While Caesar fought in Spain, Antony governed Italy. In Greece he brought reinforcements across the Adriatic and commanded the left wing at Pharsalus in August 48 BCE, where Pompey was defeated. As Caesar's deputy, the master of horse, he ran Italy again during Caesar's absence in Egypt, but violent clashes over debt relief made him unpopular.

Antony was consul with Caesar in 44 BCE, and at the Lupercalia festival in February he offered Caesar a royal diadem, which Caesar refused. When the conspirators struck on 15 March, Antony was kept talking outside. As consul he took charge of Caesar's papers and treasury, reached a compromise with the assassins, and then turned the crowd against them with his funeral speech. But Caesar's will made his great-nephew Octavian his heir, and the two became rivals. Cicero attacked Antony in his Philippics, the senate declared him a public enemy, and he was beaten at Mutina in April 43 BCE.

Within months Octavian changed sides. In November 43 BCE he, Antony and Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate, a five-year dictatorship by committee, and published lists of enemies to be killed; Cicero was among the victims. In October 42 BCE Antony's leadership won the twin battles of Philippi in Macedonia, where Cassius and Brutus took their own lives. Antony then took charge of the wealthy eastern provinces.

In 41 BCE Antony summoned Cleopatra to meet him at Tarsus, and spent the following winter with her in Alexandria. Their relationship produced three children. A brief war between his wife Fulvia and Octavian in Italy was settled in 40 BCE, and after Fulvia's death Antony married Octavian's sister Octavia. Antony's general Ventidius drove back a Parthian invasion of Syria, but Antony's own invasion of Parthia in 36 BCE ended in a disastrous winter retreat; Plutarch reports the loss of some 20,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry. After a successful campaign in Armenia, Antony staged a triumph in Alexandria and assigned kingdoms to Cleopatra's children, recognising her son Caesarion as Caesar's true heir.

Octavian used these "Donations of Alexandria", and Antony's divorce of Octavia, to rally Rome against him. In 32 BCE the senate stripped Antony of his powers and declared war on Cleopatra. On 2 September 31 BCE their fleet was defeated at Actium, and the couple fled to Egypt. When Octavian invaded in 30 BCE, Antony stabbed himself, believing that Cleopatra was already dead; according to Plutarch he died in her arms. She killed herself soon after. Octavian, who took the name Augustus in 27 BCE, became sole master of the Roman world.

Our 100 BCE map shows the Roman Republic and the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Cleopatra's family. By the 1 BCE map, after the Battle of Actium, Egypt lies within the Roman Empire of Augustus. See also Julius Caesar, Cleopatra and Cicero.