Belgium

History Main article: History of Belgium For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Belgian history . Antiquity Gallia Belgica at the time of Julius Caesar 's conquest of Gaul in 54 BCE In his account of the Roman invasion of Gaul , Roman leader Julius Caesar noted that the original Belgae inhabited the northern part of Gaul extending from the Seine and Marne rivers to the Rhine . [ 1 ] They therefore inhabited most of modern Belgium, and significant parts of France , the Netherlands , and Germany . He described the Belgae as the bravest of the Gauls, and attributed this to their distance from the Roman Province , minimal contact with merchants importing luxury goods, and their continual warfare with the neighboring Germanic tribes across the Rhine. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Within this broad region, Caesar referred to a specific area as "Belgium," which was politically dominant and located in what is now northern France. [ 4 ] Modern Belgium, along with neighboring regions of the Netherlands and Germany, corresponds to the territories of the northernmost Belgae tribes, including the Menapii , [ a ] Nervii , [ b ] the Atuatuci , [ c ] and the Germani Cisrhenani . [ d ] Julius Caesar described these tribes as particularly warlike and economically undeveloped, noting their kinship with the Germanic tribes east of the Rhine. [ 5 ] Additionally, the area around Arlon in southern Belgium was part of the territory of the Treveri tribe, whose lands extended into present-day Luxembourg and adjacent regions of France and Germany. [ 6 ] Following Caesar's conquests, Gallia Belgica became the Latin name for a large Roman province encompassing most of Northern Gaul , including the lands of the Belgae and Treveri. Subsequently, Roman Belgica was divided into two parts, and the regions closer to the lower Rhine frontier, such as the eastern part of modern Belgium, were incorporated into the frontier province of Germania Inferior . [ 7 ] [ 8 ] As the central government of the Western Roman Empire collapsed, the provinces of Belgica and Germania were inhabited by a mix of Romanized populations and Germanic-speaking Franks , who came to dominate the military and political spheres. [ 9 ] Middle Ages During the 5th century, the area came under the rule of the Frankish Merovingian kings, who initially established a kingdom ruling over the Romanized population in what is now northern France, and then conquered the other Frankish kingdoms. During the 8th century, the empire of the Franks came to be ruled by the Carolingian dynasty , whose centre of power included the area which is now eastern Belgium. [ 10 ] Over the centuries, it was divided up in many ways, but the Treaty of Verdun in 843 divided the Carolingian Empire into three kingdoms whose borders had a lasting impact on medieval political boundaries. Most of modern Belgium was in the Middle Kingdom , later known as Lotharingia , but the coastal county of Flanders , west of the Scheldt , became the northernmost part of West Francia , the predecessor of France . In 870 in the Treaty of Meerssen , modern Belgium lands all became part of the western kingdom for a period, but in 880 in the Treaty of Ribemont , Lotharingia came under the lasting control of the eastern kingdom, which eventually became the Holy Roman Empire . The lordships and bishoprics along the "March" (frontier) between the two great kingdoms maintained important connections between each other. For example, the county of Flanders expanded over the Scheldt into the empire, and during several periods was ruled by the same lords as the county of Hainaut . In the 13th and 14th centuries, the cloth industry and commerce boomed especially in the County of Flanders and it became one of the richest areas in Europe. This prosperity played a role in conflicts between Flanders and the king of France . Famously, Flemish militias scored a surprise victory at the Battle of the Golden Spurs against a strong force of mounted knights in 1302, but France soon regained control of the rebellious province. Burgundian and Habsburg Netherlands The Burgundian State of Charles the Bold in the 15th century In the 15th century, the French Duchy of Burgundy took control of Flanders, and from there proceeded to unite much of present-day Benelux, the so-called Burgundian Netherlands . [ 11 ] "Burgundy" and "Flanders" were the first two common names used for the Burgundian Netherlands which was the predecessor of the Austrian Netherlands, the predecessor of modern Belgium. [ 12 ] The union, technically stretching between two kingdoms, gave the area economic and political stability which led to an even greater prosperity and artistic creation. Born in Belgium, the Habsburg Emperor Charles V was heir of the Burgundians, but also of the royal families of Austria, Castile and Aragon . With the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549 he gave the Seventeen Provinces more legitimacy as a stable entity, rather than just a temporary personal union . He also increased the influence of these Netherlands over the Prince-Bishopric of Liège , which continued to exist as a large semi-independent enclave. [ 13 ] Spanish and Austrian Netherlands The Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) was triggered by the Spanish government's policy towards Protestantism , which was becoming popular in the Low Countries. The rebellious northern United Provinces ( Belgica Foederata in Latin , the "Federated Netherlands") eventually separated from the Southern Netherlands ( Belgica Regia , the "Royal Netherlands"). The southern part continued to be ruled successively by the Spanish ( Spanish Netherlands ) and the Austrian House of Habsburgs ( Austrian Netherlands ) and comprised most of modern Belgium. This was the theatre of several more protracted conflicts during much of the 17th and 18th centuries involving France, including the Franco-Dutch War (1672–1678), the Nine Years' War (1688–1697), the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), and part of the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748). French Revolution and United Kingdom of the Netherlands Following the campaigns of 1794 in the French Revolutionary Wars , the Low Countries – including territories that were never nominally under Habsburg rule, such as the Prince-Bishopric of Liège – were annexed by the French First Republic , ending Austrian rule in the region. After the dissolution of the First French Empire and the abdication of Napoleon following his defeat on the battlefield of Waterloo , the Congress of Vienna in 1814–15 created the United Kingdom of the Netherlands . This buffer state , located between the major European powers, united the former territories of the Dutch Republic, the Austrian Netherlands and the Prince-Bishopric of Liège, under King William I of Orange . Independent Belgium Episode of the Belgian Revolution of 1830 , Gustaf Wappers , 1834 In 1830, the Belgian Revolution led to the re-separation of the Southern Provinces from the Netherlands and to the establishment of a Catholic and bourgeois, officially French-speaking and neutral, independent Belgium under a provisional government and a national congress . [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Since the installation of Leopold I as king on 21 July 1831, now celebrated as Belgium's National Day , Belgium has been a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy , with a laicist constitution based on the Napoleonic Code . [ 16 ] Although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 (with plural voting until 1919) and for women in 1949. Map of Belgium, 1832, before the final settlement of borders in 1839 The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party and the Liberal Party , with the Belgian Labour Party emerging towards the end of the 19th century. French was originally the official language used by the nobility and the bourgeoisie , particularly after the rejection of the Dutch monarchy. French progressively lost its dominance as Dutch began to recover its status. This recognition became official in 1898, and in 1967, the parliament accepted a Dutch version of the Constitution . [ 17 ] The Berlin Conference of 1885 ceded control of the Congo Free State to King Leopold II as his private possession. From around 1900 there was growing international concern for the extreme and savage treatment of the Congolese population under Leopold II , for whom the Congo was primarily a source of revenue from ivory and rubber production. [ 18 ] Many Congolese were killed by Leopold's agents for failing to meet production quotas for ivory and rubber. [ 19 ] In 1908, this outcry led the Belgian state to assume responsibility for the government of the colony, henceforth called the Belgian Congo . [ 20 ] A Belgian commission in 1919 estimated that Congo's population was half of what it was in 1879. [ 19 ] Cheering crowds greet British troops entering Brussels , 4 September 1944. Germany invaded Belgium in August 1914 as part of the Schlieffen Plan to attack France , and much of the Western Front fighting of World War I occurred in western parts of the country. The opening months of the war were known as the Rape of Belgium due to German excesses. Belgium assumed control of the German colonies of Ruanda-Urundi (modern-day Rwanda and Burundi ) during the war, and in 1924 the League of Nations mandated them to Belgium. In the aftermath of the First World War, Belgium annexed the Prussian districts of Eupen and Malmedy in 1925, thereby causing the presence of a German-speaking minority. German forces again invaded the country in May 1940 , and 40,690 Belgians, over half of them Jews, were killed during the subsequent occupation and the Holocaust . From September 1944 to February 1945 the Allies liberated Belgium. After World War II , a general strike forced King Leopold III to abdicate in 1951 in favour of his son, Prince Baudouin , since many Belgians thought he had collaborated with Germany during the war. [ 21 ] The Belgian Congo gained independence in 1960 during the Congo Crisis ; [ 22 ] Ruanda-Urundi followed with its independence two years later. Belgium joined NATO as a founding member and formed the Benelux group of nations with the Netherlands and Luxembourg. Belgium became one of the six founding members of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951 and of the European Atomic Energy Community and European Economic Community , established in 1957. The latter has now become the European Union, for which Belgium hosts major administrations and institutions, including the European Commission , the Council of the European Union and the extraordinary and committee sessions of the European Parliament . In the 1990s, Belgium saw several large scandals notably surrounding Marc Dutroux , Andre Cools , the Dioxin Affair , Agusta Scandal and the murder of Karel van Noppen . [ 23 ] ^ "C. Julius Caesar, Gallic War" . perseus.tufts.edu . 1869. Archived from the original on 18 July 2024 . Retrieved 19 May 2025 . ^ "Works of Julius Caesar: Gallic Wars Book 1 (58 B.C.E.)" . sacred-texts.com . Archived from the original on 25 February 2026 . Retrieved 5 April 2025 . ^ Allen-Hornblower, Emily (2014). "BEASTS AND BARBARIANS IN CAESar's BELLUM GALLICUM 6.21–8" . The Classical Quarterly . 64 (2): 682– 693. doi : 10.1017/S0009838814000044 . ISSN   0009-8388 . ^ Caesar, Gallic War , 8.46 Archived 11 August 2023 at the Wayback Machine " quattuor legiones in Belgio collocavit ", " his confectis rebus ad legiones in Belgium se recipit hibernatque Nemetocennae ". (In online English translations the second part is often included in the next paragraph 8.47 Archived 21 June 2023 at the Wayback Machine . Wightman, Edith (1985), Gallia Belgica , University of California Press, p. 12, ISBN   978-0-520-05297-0 . González Villaescusa; Jacquemin (2011), "Gallia Belgica: An Entity with No National Claim", Études rurales , 2 (2): 93– 111, doi : 10.4000/etudesrurales.9499 ^ "Caesar Gallic War" . gaudry.be . Loeb Classical Library. 1917 . Retrieved 19 May 2025 . ^ "The Treveri – the tribe which Treves was named after" . new.coinsweekly.com . 14 October 2009. Archived from the original on 16 February 2026 . Retrieved 19 May 2025 . ^ "Germania Inferior | Roman province, Europe | Britannica" . www.britannica.com . Archived from the original on 10 December 2025 . Retrieved 5 April 2025 . ^ "Germania Inferior (1) - Livius" . www.livius.org . Archived from the original on 4 July 2018 . Retrieved 5 April 2025 . ^ "Germany | Facts, Geography, Maps, & History | Britannica" . Encyclopedia Britannica . Archived from the original on 11 February 2026 . Retrieved 17 February 2026 . ^ Werner, Matthias (1980), Der Lütticher Raum in frühkarolingischer Zeit : Untersuchungen zur Geschichte einer karolingischen Stammlandschaft ^ Edmundson, George (1922). "Chapter I: The Burgundian Netherlands" . History of Holland . The University Press, Cambridge. Republished: Authorama. Archived from the original on 28 April 2011 . Retrieved 15 December 2010 . ^ Van Der Essen, Leon (1925), "Notre nom national" , Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire , 4 (1): 121– 131, doi : 10.3406/rbph.1925.6335 , archived from the original on 20 March 2024 , retrieved 18 May 2024 ^ Edmundson, George (1922). "Chapter II: Habsburg Rule in the Netherlands" . History of Holland . The University Press, Cambridge. Republished: Authorama. Archived from the original on 26 September 2007 . Retrieved 9 June 2007 . ^ Dobbelaere, Karel ; Voyé, Liliane (1990). "From Pillar to Postmodernity: The Changing Situation of Religion in Belgium". Sociological Analysis . 51 : S1– S13. doi : 10.2307/3711670 . JSTOR   3711670 . ^ Gooch, Brison Dowling (1963). Belgium and the February Revolution . Martinus Nijhoff Publishers , The Hague , Netherlands. p. 112. Archived from the original on 28 June 2011 . Retrieved 18 October 2010 . ^ "National Day and feast days of Communities and Regions" . Belgian Federal Government. 3 October 2010. Archived from the original on 24 July 2011 . Retrieved 20 July 2011 . ^ Deschouwer, Kris (January 2004). "Ethnic structure, inequality and governance of the public sector in Belgium" (PDF) . United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 June 2007 . Retrieved 22 May 2007 . ^ Forbath, Peter (1977). The River Congo: The Discovery, Exploration and Exploitation of the World's Most Dramatic Rivers . Harper & Row. p. 278. ISBN   978-0-06-122490-4 . Archived from the original on 23 January 2024 . Retrieved 18 May 2024 . ^ a b Riding, Alan (21 September 2002). "Belgium Confronts Its Heart of Darkness; Unsavory Colonial Behavior in the Congo Will Be Tackled by a New Study – The New York Times" . nytimes.com . Archived from the original on 24 December 2016 . Retrieved 6 January 2017 . ^ Meredith, Martin (2005). The State of Africa . Jonathan Ball. pp. 95–96(?). ISBN   978-1-86842-220-3 . Archived from the original on 25 September 2023 . Retrieved 18 May 2024 . ^ Arango, Ramon (1961). Leopold III and the Belgian Royal Question . Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press. p. 108. ISBN   978-0-8018-0040-5 . Archived from the original on 15 February 2023 . Retrieved 18 May 2024 . {{ cite book }} : ISBN / Date incompatibility ( help ) ^ "The Congolese Civil War 1960–1964" . BBC News . 14 October 2003. Archived from the original on 24 May 2010 . Retrieved 29 April 2010 . ^ "Policy Failure and Corruption in Belgium: Is Federalism to Blame?" . researchgate.net . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). Read more on Wikipedia →

Politics and government Main articles: Politics of Belgium and Belgian federal government Chart illustrating the federal government construction of Belgium Belgium is a constitutional monarchy and a federal parliamentary democracy . The bicameral federal parliament is composed of a Senate and a Chamber of Representatives . The former is made up of 50 senators appointed by the parliaments of the communities and regions and 10 co-opted senators . Prior to 2014, most of the Senate's members were directly elected. The Chamber 's 150 representatives are elected under a proportional voting system from 11 electoral districts . Belgium has compulsory voting and thus maintains one of the highest rates of voter turnout in the world. [ 1 ] The King (currently Philippe ) is the head of state , though with limited prerogatives . He appoints ministers, including a Prime Minister, that have the confidence of the Chamber of Representatives to form the federal government . The Council of Ministers is composed of no more than fifteen members. With the possible exception of the Prime Minister, the Council of Ministers is composed of an equal number of Dutch-speaking members and French-speaking members. [ 2 ] The judicial system is based on civil law and originates from the Napoleonic Code . The Court of Cassation is the court of last resort, with the courts of appeal one level below. [ 3 ] Political culture Belgium's political institutions are complex; most political power rests on representation of the main cultural communities . [ 4 ] Since about 1970, the significant national Belgian political parties have split into distinct components that mainly represent the political and linguistic interests of these communities. [ 5 ] The major parties in each community, though close to the political center, belong to three main groups: Christian Democrats , Liberals , and Social Democrats . [ 6 ] Further notable parties came into being well after the middle of last century, mainly to represent linguistic , nationalist, or environmental interests, and recently smaller ones of some specific liberal nature. [ 5 ] The Belgian Federal Parliament , housed in the Palace of the Nation in Brussels , one of six different governments of the country A string of Christian Democrat coalition governments from 1958 was broken in 1999 after the first dioxin crisis , a major food contamination scandal. [ 7 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ] A "rainbow coalition" emerged from six parties: the Flemish and the French-speaking Liberals, Social Democrats and Greens. [ 10 ] Later, a " purple coalition " of Liberals and Social Democrats formed after the Greens lost most of their seats in the 2003 election . [ 11 ] The government led by Prime Minister Guy Verhofstadt from 1999 to 2007 achieved a balanced budget, some tax reforms , a labor-market reform, scheduled nuclear phase-out and instigated legislation allowing more stringent war crime and more lenient soft drug usage prosecution. Restrictions on euthanasia were reduced. In 2003, Belgium became one of the first countries in the world to legalise same-sex marriage . [ 12 ] The government promoted active diplomacy in Africa [ 13 ] and opposed the invasion of Iraq . [ 14 ] It is the only country that does not have age restrictions on euthanasia. [ 15 ] The hemicycle of the Belgian Senate Verhofstadt's coalition fared badly in the June 2007 elections . For more than a year, the country experienced a political crisis . [ 16 ] This crisis was such that many observers speculated on a possible partition of Belgium . [ 17 ] [ 18 ] [ 19 ] From 21 December 2007 until 20 March 2008 the temporary Verhofstadt III Government was in office. This was a coalition of the Flemish and Francophone Christian Democrats , the Flemish and Francophone Liberals together with the Francophone Social Democrats . [ 20 ] On that day, a new government , led by Flemish Christian Democrat Yves Leterme , the actual winner of the federal elections of June 2007 , was sworn in by the King. On 15 July 2008 Leterme offered the resignation of the cabinet to the King, as no progress in constitutional reforms had been made. [ 20 ] In December 2008, Leterme once more offered his resignation after a crisis surrounding the sale of Fortis to BNP Paribas . [ 21 ] At this juncture, his resignation was accepted and Christian Democratic and Flemish Herman Van Rompuy was sworn in as Prime Minister on 30 December 2008. [ 22 ] After Herman Van Rompuy was designated the first permanent President of the European Council on 19 November 2009, he offered the resignation of his government to King Albert II on 25 November 2009. A few hours later, the new government under Prime Minister Yves Leterme was sworn in. On 22 April 2010, Leterme again offered the resignation of his cabinet to the King [ 23 ] after one of the coalition partners, the OpenVLD , withdrew from the government, and on 26 April 2010 King Albert officially accepted the resignation. [ 24 ] The Parliamentary elections in Belgium on 13 June 2010 saw the Flemish nationalist N-VA become the largest party in Flanders, and the Socialist Party PS the largest party in Wallonia. [ 25 ] Until December 2011, Belgium was governed by Leterme's caretaker government awaiting the end of the deadlocked negotiations for formation of a new government . By 30 March 2011, this set a new world record for the elapsed time without an official government, previously held by war-torn Iraq . [ 26 ] Finally, in December 2011 the Di Rupo Government led by Walloon socialist Prime Minister Elio Di Rupo was sworn in. [ 27 ] The 2014 federal election (coinciding with the regional elections ) resulted in a further electoral gain for the Flemish nationalist N-VA. However, the incumbent coalition (composed of Flemish and French-speaking Social Democrats, Liberals, and Christian Democrats) maintained a solid majority in Parliament and all electoral constituencies. On 22 July 2014, King Philippe nominated Charles Michel (MR) and Kris Peeters (CD&V) to lead the formation of a new federal cabinet composed of the Flemish parties N-VA, CD&V, Open Vld and the French-speaking MR, which resulted in the Michel Government . It was the first time N-VA was part of the federal cabinet, while the French-speaking side was represented only by the MR, which achieved a minority of the public votes in Wallonia. [ 28 ] In May 2019 federal elections in the Flemish-speaking northern region of Flanders, the far-right Vlaams Belang party made major gains. In the French-speaking southern area of Wallonia, the Socialists were strong. The moderate Flemish nationalist party, the N-VA, remained the largest party in parliament. [ 29 ] In July 2019, Prime Minister Charles Michel was selected to hold the post of President of the European Council . [ 30 ] His successor Sophie Wilmès was Belgium's first female prime minister. She led the caretaker government since October 2019. [ 31 ] The Flemish Liberal party politician Alexander De Croo became the new prime minister in October 2020. The parties had agreed on the federal government 16 months after the elections. [ 32 ] On 3 February 2025, Bart De Wever , leader of the New Flemish Alliance , became the new prime minister. He is the first Flemish nationalist to be named Belgian premier. [ 33 ] Communities and regions Main article: Communities, regions and language areas of Belgium Communities:     Flemish Community / Dutch language area    Flemish & French Community / bilingual language area     French Community / French language area     German-speaking Community / German language area Regions:     Flemish Region / Dutch language area     Brussels-Capital Region / bilingual area     Walloon Region / French and German language areas Following a usage which can be traced back to the Burgundian and Habsburg courts, [ 34 ] in the 19th century it was necessary to speak French to belong to the governing upper class, and those who could only speak Dutch were effectively second-class citizens. [ 35 ] Late that century, and continuing into the 20th century, Flemish movements evolved to counter this situation. [ 36 ] While the people in Southern Belgium spoke French or dialects of French, and most Brusselers adopted French as their first language, the Flemings refused to do so and succeeded progressively in making Dutch an equal language in the education system. [ 36 ] Following World War II, Belgian politics became increasingly dominated by the autonomy of its two main linguistic communities. [ 37 ] Intercommunal tensions rose and the constitution was amended to minimize the potential for conflict. [ 37 ] Based on the four language areas defined in 1962–63 (the Dutch, bilingual, French and German language areas), consecutive revisions of the country's constitution in 1970, 1980, 1988 and 1993 established a unique form of a federal state with segregated political power into three levels: [ 38 ] [ 39 ] The federal government , based in Brussels. The three language communities: the Flemish Community (Dutch-speaking); the French Community (French-speaking); [ a ] the German-speaking Community . The three regions: the Flemish Region , subdivided into five provinces ; the Walloon Region , subdivided into five provinces; the Brussels-Capital Region . The constitutional language areas determine the official languages in their municipalities, as well as the geographical limits of the empowered institutions for specific matters. [ 42 ] Although this would allow for seven parliaments and governments when the Communities and Regions were created in 1980, Flemish politicians decided to merge both. [ 43 ] Thus the Flemings just have one single institutional body of parliament and government is empowered for all except federal and specific municipal matters. [ b ] The overlapping boundaries of the Regions and Communities have created two notable peculiarities: the territory of the Brussels-Capital Region (which came into existence nearly a decade after the other regions) is included in both the Flemish and French Communities, and the territory of the German-speaking Community lies wholly within the Walloon Region. Conflicts about jurisdiction between the bodies are resolved by the Constitutional Court of Belgium . The structure is intended as a compromise to allow different cultures to live together peacefully. [ 44 ] Locus of policy jurisdiction The Federal State's authority includes justice, defense, federal police, social security, nuclear energy, monetary policy and public debt, and other aspects of public finances. State-owned companies include the Belgian Post Group and Belgian Railways . The Federal Government is responsible for the obligations of Belgium and its federalized institutions towards the European Union and NATO. It controls substantial parts of public health, home affairs and foreign affairs. [ 45 ] The budget—without the debt—controlled by the federal government amounts to about 50% of the national fiscal income. The federal government employs around 12% of the civil servants. [ 46 ] Communities exercise their authority only within linguistically determined geographical boundaries, originally oriented towards the individuals of a Community's language: culture (including audiovisual media), education and the use of the relevant language. Extensions to personal matters less directly connected with language comprise health policy (curative and preventive medicine) and assistance to individuals (protection of youth, social welfare, aid to families, immigrant assistance services, and so on.). [ 47 ] Regions have authority in fields that can be broadly associated with their territory. These include economy, employment, agriculture, water policy, housing, public works, energy, transport, the environment, town and country planning, nature conservation, credit and foreign trade. They supervise the provinces, municipalities and intercommunal utility companies. [ 48 ] In several fields, the different levels each have their own say on specifics. With education, for instance, the autonomy of the Communities neither includes decisions about the compulsory aspect nor allows for setting minimum requirements for awarding qualifications, which remain federal matters. [ 45 ] Each level of government can be involved in scientific research and international relations associated with its powers. The treaty-making power of the Regions' and Communities' Governments is the broadest of all the Federating units of all the Federations all over the world. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] [ 51 ] Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of Belgium The Berlaymont building in Brussels, seat of the European Commission Because of its location at the crossroads of Western Europe , Belgium has historically been the route of invading armies from its larger neighbors. With virtually defenseless borders, Belgium has traditionally sought to avoid domination by the more powerful nations which surround it through a policy of mediation. The Belgians have been strong advocates of European integration . The headquarters of NATO and of several of the institutions of the European Union are located in Belgium. Armed forces Main article: Belgian Armed Forces F-16 Fighting Falcon of the Belgian Air Component The Belgian Armed Forces had 23,200 active personnel in 2023, including 8,500 in the Land Component , 1,400 in the Naval Component , 4,900 in the Air Component , 1,450 in the Medical Component , and 6,950 in joint service, in addition to 5,900 reserve personnel. [ 52 ] In 2019, Belgium's defense budget totaled €4.303 billion ($4.921 billion) representing .93% of its GDP. [ 53 ] The operational commands of the four components are subordinate to the Staff Department for Operations and Training of the Ministry of Defense , which is headed by the Assistant Chief of Staff Operations and Training, and to the Chief of Defense . [ 54 ] The Belgian military consists of volunteers (conscription was abolished in 1995), and citizens of other EU states, Iceland, Norway, Switzerland, or Lichtenstein are also able to join. Belgium has troops deployed in several African countries as part of UN or EU missions, in Iraq for the war against the Islamic State , and in eastern Europe for the NATO presence there. [ 52 ] [ 55 ] The effects of the Second World War made collective security a priority for Belgian foreign policy . In March 1948 Belgium signed the Treaty of Brussels and then joined NATO in 1948. However, the integration of the armed forces into NATO did not begin until after the Korean War . [ 56 ] The Belgians, along with the Luxembourg government, sent a detachment of battalion strength to fight in Korea known as the Belgian United Nations Command . This mission was the first in a long line of UN missions which the Belgians supported. Currently, the Belgian Marine Component is working closely together with the Dutch Navy under the command of the Admiral Benelux . According to the 2024 Global Peace Index , Belgium is the 16th most peaceful country in the world. [ 57 ] ^ López Pintor, Rafael; Gratschew, Maria (2002). "Voter Turnout Rates from a Comparative Perspective" (PDF) . IDEA . Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 November 2011 . Retrieved 22 June 2011 . ^ "The Belgian Constitution – Article 99" (PDF) . Belgian House of Representatives. January 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 July 2011 . Retrieved 26 June 2011 . ^ "Belgium 1831 (rev. 2012)" . Constitute . 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The Guardian . 28 October 2019. Archived from the original on 18 May 2024 . Retrieved 18 May 2024 . ^ Didili, Zoi (1 October 2020). "Belgium agrees on federal government, De Croo to become PM" . Archived from the original on 11 January 2021 . Retrieved 3 March 2021 . ^ "Flemish nationalist Bart de Wever sworn in as Belgium's new prime minister" . France 24 . 3 February 2025. Archived from the original on 23 November 2025 . Retrieved 24 October 2025 . ^ Kramer, Johannes (1984). Zweisprachigkeit in den Benelux-ländern (in German). Buske Verlag. p. 69. ISBN   978-3-87118-597-7 . Zur prestige Sprache wurde in den Spanischen Niederlanden ganz eindeutig das Französische. Die Vertreter Spaniens beherrschten normalerweise das Französische, nicht aber das Niederländische; ein beachtlicher Teil der am Hofe tätigen Adligen stammte aus Wallonien, das sich ja eher auf die spanische Seite geschlagen hatte als Flandern und Brabant. In dieser Situation war es selbstverständlich, dass die flämischen Adligen, die im Laufe der Zeit immer mehr ebenfalls zu Hofbeamten wurden, sich des Französischen bedienen mussten, wenn sie als gleichwertig anerkannt werden wollten. [Transl.: The prestigious language in the Spanish Netherlands was clearly French. Spain's representatives usually mastered French but not Dutch; a notable part of the nobles at the court came from Wallonia, which had taken party for the Spanish side to a higher extent than Flanders and Brabant. It was therefore evident within this context that the Flemish nobility, of which a progressively larger number became servants of the court, had to use French, if it wanted to get acknowledged as well.] ^ Witte, Els; Craeybeckx, Jan & Meynen, Alain (2009). Political History of Belgium: From 1830 Onwards . Brussels: Academic and Scientific Publishers. p. 56. ^ a b Fitzmaurice (1996) , p. 31. ^ a b "Belgium" . European Election Database . Norwegian Social Science Data Services . 2010. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011 . Retrieved 8 December 2010 . ^ Willemyns, Roland (2002). "The Dutch-French Language Border in Belgium" (PDF) . Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development . 23 (1&2): 36– 49. doi : 10.1080/01434630208666453 . S2CID   143809695 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 June 2007 . Retrieved 22 June 2007 . ^ "The Belgian Constitution – Article 4" (PDF) . Belgian House of Representatives. January 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 July 2011 . Retrieved 26 June 2011 . ^ "La nouvelle Fédération Wallonie-Bruxelles défraye la chronique" . La Libre.be (in French). 30 September 2024. Archived from the original on 9 October 2024 . Retrieved 30 September 2024 . ^ "Une Fédération Wallonie-Bruxelles" . DHnet (in French). 30 September 2024. Archived from the original on 3 December 2024 . Retrieved 30 September 2024 . ^ Fitzmaurice (1996) , p. 121 ^ Fitzmaurice (1996) , p. 122. ^ Cite error: The named reference Fitzmaurice was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ a b "The Federal Government's Powers" . .be Portal . Belgian Federal Government. 3 October 2010. Archived from the original on 16 December 2010 . Retrieved 4 February 2011 . ^ Lagasse, Charles-Etienne (2003). Les nouvelles institutions politiques de la Belgique et de l'Europe . Namur: Erasme. p. 289. ISBN   978-2-87127-783-5 . In 2002, 58.92% of the fiscal income was going to the budget of the federal government, but more than one-third was used to pay the interests of the public debt. Without including this post, the share of the federal government budget would be only 48.40% of the fiscal income. There are 87.8% of the civil servants who are working for the Regions or the Communities and 12.2% for the Federal State. ^ "The Communities" . .be Portal . Belgian Federal Government. 3 October 2010. Archived from the original on 15 June 2011 . Retrieved 26 June 2011 . ^ "The Regions" . .be Portal . Belgian Federal Government. 3 October 2010. Archived from the original on 15 June 2011 . Retrieved 26 June 2011 . ^ Lagasse, Charles-Etienne (18 May 2004). "Federalism in Russia, Canada and Belgium: experience of comparative research" (in French). Kazan Institute of Federalism. Archived from the original on 20 June 2010 . Retrieved 5 October 2008 . La Belgique constitue ainsi le seul exemple clair du transfert d'une partie de la compétence " affaires étrangères " à des entités fédérées. (Transl.: Belgium is thus the only clear example of a transfer of a part of the "Foreign Affairs" competences to federated units.) ^ Lagasse, Charles-Etienne. Les nouvelles institutions de la Belgique et de l'Europe (in French). p. 603. [Le fédéralisme belge] repose sur une combinaison unique d'équipollence, d'exclusivité et de prolongement international des compétences. ([Belgian federalism] is based on a unique combination of equipollence, of exclusivity, and of international extension of competences.) ^ Suinen, Philippe (October 2000). "Une Première mondiale" . Le Monde diplomatique (in French). Archived from the original on 17 November 2000 . Retrieved 5 October 2008 . Dans l'organisation de ces autonomies, la Belgique a réalisé une " première " mondiale: afin d'éviter la remise en cause, par le biais de la dimension internationale, de compétences exclusives transférées aux entités fédérées, les communautés et régions se sont vu reconnaître une capacité et des pouvoirs internationaux. (In organizing its autonomies, Belgium realized a World's First: to avoid a relevant stalemate, international consequences caused transfers of exclusive competences to federal, community and regional entities that are recognized to have become internationally enabled and empowered.) ^ a b IISS (2023). The Military Balance 2023 . International Institute for Strategic Studies. p. 75. ^ "Defence Data of Belgium in 2010" . European Defence Agency . Archived from the original on 24 September 2012 . Retrieved 9 August 2012 . ^ "Defensie La Défense" . Archived from the original on 14 June 2011 . Retrieved 15 June 2011 . ^ "Belgium § Military and Security" . CIA World Factbook . Archived from the original on 9 January 2021 . Retrieved 10 February 2024 . ^ David Isby and Charles Kamps Jr, 'Armies of NATO's Central Front,' Jane's Publishing Company, 1985, p.59 ^ "2024 Global Peace Index" (PDF) . Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 June 2024 . Retrieved 11 August 2024 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). Read more on Wikipedia →

Economy Main article: Economy of Belgium Belgium's strongly globalized economy [ 1 ] and its transport infrastructure are integrated with the rest of Europe. Its location at the heart of a highly industrialized region helped make it the world's 15th largest trading nation in 2007. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] The economy is characterized by a highly productive work force, high GNP and high exports per capita. [ 4 ] Belgium's main imports are raw materials, machinery and equipment, chemicals, raw diamonds, pharmaceuticals, foodstuffs, transportation equipment, and oil products. Its main exports are machinery and equipment, chemicals, finished diamonds, metals and metal products, and foodstuffs. [ 5 ] The Belgian economy is heavily service-oriented and shows a dual nature: a dynamic Flemish economy and a Walloon economy that lags behind. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] [ a ] One of the founding members of the European Union, Belgium strongly supports an open economy and the extension of the powers of EU institutions to integrate member economies. Since 1922, through the Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union , Belgium and Luxembourg have been a single trade market with customs and currency union. [ 8 ] Steelmaking along the Meuse at Ougrée , near Liège Belgium was the first continental European country to undergo the Industrial Revolution , in the early 19th century. [ 9 ] Areas in Liège Province and around Charleroi rapidly developed mining and steelmaking, which flourished until the mid-20th century in the Sambre and Meuse valley and made Belgium one of the three most industrialized nations in the world from 1830 to 1910. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] However, by the 1840s the textile industry of Flanders was in severe crisis, and the region experienced famine from 1846 to 1850. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] After World War II, Ghent and Antwerp experienced a rapid expansion of the chemical and petroleum industries. The 1973 and 1979 oil crises sent the economy into a recession; it was particularly prolonged in Wallonia, where the steel industry had become less competitive and experienced a serious decline. [ 14 ] In the 1980s and 1990s, the economic center of the country continued to shift northwards and is now concentrated in the populous Flemish Diamond area. [ 15 ] By the end of the 1980s, Belgian macroeconomic policies had resulted in a cumulative government debt of about 120% of GDP. As of 2006 [update] , the budget was balanced and public debt was equal to 90.30% of GDP. [ 16 ] In 2005 and 2006, real GDP growth rates of 1.5% and 3.0%, respectively, were slightly above the average for the Euro area. Unemployment rates of 8.4% in 2005 and 8.2% in 2006 were close to the area average. By October 2010 , this had grown to 8.5% compared to an average rate of 9.6% for the European Union as a whole (EU 27). [ 17 ] [ 18 ] From 1832 until 2002, Belgium's currency was the Belgian franc . Belgium switched to the euro in 2002, with the first sets of euro coins being minted in 1999. The standard Belgian euro coins designated for circulation show the portrait of the monarch (first King Albert II, since 2013 King Philippe). Despite an 18% decrease observed from 1970 to 1999, Belgium still had in 1999 the highest rail network density within the European Union with 113.8 km/1 000 km 2 . On the other hand, the same period, 1970–1999, has seen a huge growth (+56%) of the motorway network . In 1999, the density of km motorways per 1000 km 2 and 1000 inhabitants amounted to 55.1 and 16.5 respectively and were significantly superior to the EU's means of 13.7 and 15.9. [ 19 ] Port of Zeebrugge From a biological resource perspective, Belgium has a low endowment: Belgium's biocapacity adds up to only 0.8 global hectares in 2016, [ 20 ] just about half of the 1.6 global hectares of biocapacity available per person worldwide. [ 21 ] In contrast, in 2016, Belgians used on average 6.3 global hectares of biocapacity - their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they required about eight times as much biocapacity as Belgium contains. As a result, Belgium was running a biocapacity deficit of 5.5 global hectares per person in 2016. [ 20 ] Belgium experiences some of the most congested traffic in Europe. In 2010, commuters to the cities of Brussels and Antwerp spent respectively 65 and 64 hours a year in traffic jams. [ 22 ] Like in most small European countries, more than 80% of the airways traffic is handled by a single airport, the Brussels Airport . The ports of Antwerp and Zeebrugge (Bruges) share more than 80% of Belgian maritime traffic, Antwerp being the second European harbor with a gross weight of goods handled of 115 988 000 t in 2000 after a growth of 10.9% over the preceding five years. [ 19 ] [ 23 ] In 2016, the port of Antwerp handled 214 million tons after a year-on-year growth of 2.7%. [ 24 ] There is a large economic gap between Flanders and Wallonia . Wallonia was historically wealthy compared to Flanders, mostly due to its heavy industries , but the decline of the steel industry post-World War II led to the region's rapid decline, whereas Flanders rose swiftly. Since then, Flanders has been prosperous, among the wealthiest regions in Europe, whereas Wallonia has been languishing. As of 2007, the unemployment rate of Wallonia is over double that of Flanders. The divide has played a key part in the tensions between the Flemish and Walloons in addition to the already-existing language divide. Pro-independence movements have gained high popularity in Flanders as a consequence. The separatist New Flemish Alliance (N-VA) party, for instance, is the largest party in Belgium. [ 25 ] [ 26 ] [ 27 ] Science and technology Further information: Science and technology in Brussels , Science and technology in Flanders , and Science and technology in Wallonia Gerardus Mercator Contributions to the development of science and technology have appeared throughout the country's history. The 16th-century Early Modern flourishing of Western Europe included cartographer Gerardus Mercator , anatomist Andreas Vesalius , herbalist Rembert Dodoens [ 28 ] [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] and mathematician Simon Stevin among the most influential scientists. [ 32 ] Chemist Ernest Solvay [ 33 ] and engineer Zenobe Gramme (École industrielle de Liège) [ 34 ] gave their names to the Solvay process and the Gramme dynamo , respectively, in the 1860s. Bakelite was developed in 1907–1909 by Leo Baekeland . Ernest Solvay also acted as a major philanthropist and gave his name to the Solvay Institute of Sociology , the Solvay Brussels School of Economics and Management and the International Solvay Institutes for Physics and Chemistry which are now part of the Université libre de Bruxelles . In 1911, he started a series of conferences, the Solvay Conferences on Physics and Chemistry, which have had a deep impact on the evolution of quantum physics and chemistry. [ 35 ] A major contribution to fundamental science was also due to a Belgian, Georges Lemaître ( Catholic University of Louvain ), who is credited with proposing the Big Bang theory of the origin of the universe in 1927. [ 36 ] Three Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine were awarded to Belgians: Jules Bordet (Université libre de Bruxelles) in 1919, Corneille Heymans ( University of Ghent ) in 1938 and Albert Claude (Université libre de Bruxelles) together with Christian de Duve ( Université catholique de Louvain ) in 1974. François Englert (Université libre de Bruxelles) was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2013. Ilya Prigogine (Université libre de Bruxelles) was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1977. [ 37 ] Two Belgian mathematicians have been awarded the Fields Medal : Pierre Deligne in 1978 and Jean Bourgain in 1994. [ 38 ] [ 39 ] Belgium was ranked 24th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024, [ 40 ] and its ranking advanced to 21st in the index of 2025 [ 41 ] [ 42 ] ^ Belgium ranked first in the KOF Globalization Index 2009 ETH Zürich (ed.). "KOF Index of Globalization" . Archived from the original on 31 May 2012 . Retrieved 2 February 2009 . ^ "Rank Order – Exports" . CIA – The 2008 world factbook . Archived from the original on 4 October 2008 . Retrieved 5 October 2008 . 15[th]: Belgium $322,200,000,000 (2007 est.) ^ "Rank Order – Imports" . CIA – The 2008 world factbook . Archived from the original on 4 October 2008 . Retrieved 5 October 2008 . 15[th]: Belgium $323,200,000,000 (2007 est.) ^ "Belgian economy" . Belgium . Belgian Federal Public Service (ministry) of Foreign Affairs, Foreign Trade and Development Cooperation. Archived from the original on 15 June 2009 . Retrieved 12 June 2009 . Belgium is the world leader in terms of export per capita and can justifiably call itself the 'world's largest exporter'. ^ "Belgium" . The World Factbook (2021 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency . 23 September 2021. ^ Cite error: The named reference Fitzmaurice was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ "Wallonia in 'decline' thanks to politicians" . Expatica Communications BV. 9 March 2005. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007 . Retrieved 16 June 2007 . ^ "L'Union économique belgo-luxembourgeoise" (in French). Luxembourgian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 30 September 2011 . Retrieved 15 June 2011 . ^ "Industrial History Belgium" . European Route of Industrial Heritage. Archived from the original on 31 July 2013 . Retrieved 8 May 2007 . ^ Rioux, Jean-Pierre (1989). La révolution industrielle (in French). Paris: Seuil. p. 105. ISBN   978-2-02-000651-4 . ^ "Industrial History, Belgium" . European route of industrial heritage. Archived from the original on 31 July 2010 . Retrieved 15 November 2010 . ^ Vanhaute, Eric; Paping, Richard & Ó Gráda, Cormac (2006). The European subsistence crisis of 1845–1850: a comparative perspective (PDF) . IEHC. Helsinki. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 October 2011 . Retrieved 31 May 2011 . ^ Vanhaute, Eric (2007). " 'So worthy an example to Ireland'. The subsistance and industrial crisis of 1845–1850 in Flanders" . When the potato failed. Causes and effects of the 'last' European subsistance crisis, 1845–1850 . Brepols. pp.  123– 148. ISBN   978-2-503-51985-2 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 July 2011 . Retrieved 31 May 2011 . ^ Cite error: The named reference USStateDpt was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Vanhaverbeke, Wim. "Het belang van de Vlaamse Ruit vanuit economisch perspectief The importance of the Flemish Diamond from an economical perspective " (in Dutch). Netherlands Institute of Business Organization and Strategy Research, University of Maastricht . Archived from the original on 14 March 2007 . Retrieved 19 May 2007 . ^ "The World Factbook—(Rank Order—Public debt)" . CIA. 17 April 2007. Archived from the original on 13 June 2007 . Retrieved 8 May 2007 . ^ "Key figures" . National Bank of Belgium . Archived from the original on 30 April 2007 . Retrieved 19 May 2007 . ^ "EurActiv" . Belgium makes place for urban enterprises . EurActiv. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011 . Retrieved 19 March 2011 . ^ a b Panorama of Transport (PDF) . Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. 2003. ISBN   978-92-894-4845-1 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 August 2011. ^ a b "Country Trends" . Global Footprint Network. Archived from the original on 8 August 2017 . Retrieved 15 November 2019 . ^ Lin, David; Hanscom, Laurel; Murthy, Adeline; Galli, Alessandro; Evans, Mikel; Neill, Evan; Mancini, Maria Serena; Martindill, Jon; Medouar, Fatime-Zahra; Huang, Shiyu; Wackernagel, Mathis (2018). "Ecological Footprint Accounting for Countries: Updates and Results of the National Footprint Accounts, 2012–2018" . Resources . 7 (3): 58. Bibcode : 2018Resou...7...58L . doi : 10.3390/resources7030058 . ^ Fidler, Stephen (3 November 2010). "Europe's Top Traffic Jam Capitals" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on 19 January 2012 . Retrieved 21 June 2011 . ^ Another comparative study on transportation in Belgium: OECD environmental performance reviews: Belgium . OECD. 2007. ISBN   978-92-64-03111-1 . ^ "Double record for freight volume" . port of Antwerp . Archived from the original on 23 February 2017 . Retrieved 23 February 2017 . ^ "The Belgian Crisis" . Archived from the original on 11 September 2016 . Retrieved 5 June 2016 . ^ John Lichfield (2007). "Belgium: A nation divided" . Independent . Archived from the original on 31 May 2016 . Retrieved 5 June 2016 . ^ Cook, B.A. (2002). Belgium: A History . Peter Lang. p. 139. ISBN   978-0-8204-5824-3 . Archived from the original on 18 May 2024 . Retrieved 6 January 2017 . ^ "Rembert Dodoens: iets over zijn leven en werk—Dodoens' werken" . Plantaardigheden—Project Rembert Dodoens (Rembertus Dodonaeus) (in Dutch). Balkbrug: Stichting Kruidenhoeve/Plantaardigheden. 20 December 2005. Archived from the original on 10 June 2007 . Retrieved 17 May 2007 . het Cruijdeboeck, dat in 1554 verscheen. Dit meesterwerk was na de bijbel in die tijd het meest vertaalde boek. Het werd gedurende meer dan een eeuw steeds weer heruitgegeven en gedurende meer dan twee eeuwen was het het meest gebruikte handboek over kruiden in West-Europa. Het is een werk van wereldfaam en grote wetenschappelijke waarde. De nieuwe gedachten die Dodoens erin neerlegde, werden de bouwstenen voor de botanici en medici van latere generaties. (... the Cruijdeboeck, published in 1554. This masterpiece was, after the Bible, the most translated book in that time. It continued to be republished for more than a century and for more than two centuries it was the mostly used referential about herbs. It is a work with world fame and great scientific value. The new thoughts written down by Dodoens, became the building bricks for botanists and physicians of later generations.) ^ O'Connor, J. J.; Robertson, E. F. (2004). "Simon Stevin" . MacTutor History of Mathematics . School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland. Archived from the original on 9 June 2007 . Retrieved 11 May 2007 . Although he did not invent decimals (they had been used by the Arabs and the Chinese long before Stevin's time) he did introduce their use in mathematics in Europe. ^ De Broe, Marc E.; De Weerdt, Dirk L.; Ysebaert, Dirk K.; Vercauteren, Sven R.; De Greef, Kathleen E.; De Broe, Luc C. (1999). "Abstract (*)" . American Journal of Nephrology . 19 (2): 282– 289. doi : 10.1159/000013462 . PMID   10213829 . The importance of A. Vesalius' publication 'de humani corporis fabrica libri septem' cannot be overestimated. (*) Free abstract for pay-per-view article by De Broe, Marc E.; De Weerdt, Dirk L.; Ysebaert, Dirk K.; Vercauteren, Sven R.; De Greef, Kathleen E.; De Broe, Luc C. (1999). "The Low Countries – 16th/17th century" . American Journal of Nephrology . 19 (2): 282– 9. doi : 10.1159/000013462 . PMID   10213829 . ^ Midbon, Mark (24 March 2000). " 'A Day Without Yesterday': Georges Lemaitre & the Big Bang" . Commonweal , republished: Catholic Education Resource Center (CERC). pp.  18– 19. Archived from the original on 6 July 2007 . Retrieved 7 June 2007 . ^ Carson, Patricia (1969). The Fair Face of Flanders . Lannoo Uitgeverij. p. 136. ISBN   978-90-209-4385-6 . ^ Day, Lance (2003). Lance Day; Ian McNeil (eds.). Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology . Routledge. p. 1135. ISBN   978-0-203-02829-2 . ^ Woodward, Gordon (2003). Lance Day; Ian McNeil (eds.). Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology . Routledge. p.  523 . ISBN   978-0-203-02829-2 . ^ Larsson, Ulf (2001). Cultures of Creativity: the Centennial Exhibition of the Nobel Prize . Science History Publications. p. 211. ISBN   978-0-88135-288-7 . ^ "Georges Lemaître, Father of the Big Bang" . American Museum of Natural History . 2000. Archived from the original on 17 January 2013 . Retrieved 9 December 2010 . ^ "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1977" . Nobelprize.org. Archived from the original on 3 December 2010 . Retrieved 9 December 2010 . ^ O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F. , "Pierre Deligne" , MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive , University of St Andrews (Retrieved 10 November 2011) ^ O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F. , "Jean Bourgain" , MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive , University of St Andrews (Retrieved 10 November 2011) ^ World Intellectual Property Organization (2024). Global Innovation Index 2024: Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship . World Intellectual Property Organization. p. 18. doi : 10.34667/tind.50062 . ISBN   978-92-805-3681-2 . Archived from the original on 8 October 2024 . Retrieved 6 October 2024 . ^ "Belgium ranking in the Global Innovation Index 2025" . www.wipo.int . Archived from the original on 21 April 2025 . Retrieved 22 October 2025 . ^ Dutta, Soumitra; Lanvin, Bruno (2025). Global Innovation Index 2025: Innovation at a Crossroads . World Intellectual Property Organization . p. 19. doi : 10.34667/tind.58864 . ISBN   978-92-805-3797-0 . Archived from the original on 12 October 2025 . Retrieved 17 October 2025 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). Read more on Wikipedia →

Culture Main article: Culture of Belgium Despite its political and linguistic divisions , the region corresponding to today's Belgium has seen the flourishing of major artistic movements that have had tremendous influence on European art and culture. Nowadays, to a certain extent, cultural life is concentrated within each language Community, and a variety of barriers have made a shared cultural sphere less pronounced. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] Since the 1970s, there are no bilingual universities or colleges in the country except the Royal Military Academy and the Antwerp Maritime Academy . [ 4 ] Fine arts See also: List of Belgian painters , Architecture of Belgium , and Music of Belgium The Ghent Altarpiece : The Adoration of the Mystic Lamb (interior view), painted 1432 by van Eyck Contributions to painting and architecture have been especially rich. The Mosan art , the Early Netherlandish , [ 5 ] the Flemish Renaissance and Baroque painting [ 6 ] and major examples of Romanesque , Gothic , Renaissance and Baroque architecture [ 7 ] are milestones in the history of art. While the 15th century's art in the Low Countries is dominated by the religious paintings of Jan van Eyck and Rogier van der Weyden , the 16th century is characterized by a broader panel of styles such as Peter Breughel 's landscape paintings and Lambert Lombard 's representation of the antique. [ 8 ] Though the Baroque style of Peter Paul Rubens and Anthony van Dyck flourished in the early 17th century in the Southern Netherlands, [ 9 ] it gradually declined thereafter. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] During the 19th and 20th centuries many original romantic , expressionist and surrealist Belgian painters emerged, including James Ensor and other artists belonging to the Les XX group, Constant Permeke , Paul Delvaux and René Magritte . The avant-garde CoBrA movement appeared in the 1950s, while the sculptor Panamarenko remains a remarkable figure in contemporary art. [ 12 ] [ 13 ] Multidisciplinary artists Jan Fabre , Wim Delvoye and the painter Luc Tuymans are other internationally renowned figures on the contemporary art scene. Belgian contributions to architecture also continued into the 19th and 20th centuries, including the work of Victor Horta and Henry van de Velde , who were major initiators of the Art Nouveau style. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] Jacques Brel The vocal music of the Franco-Flemish School developed in the southern part of the Low Countries and was an important contribution to Renaissance culture. [ 16 ] In the 19th and 20th centuries, there was an emergence of major violinists, such as Henri Vieuxtemps , Eugène Ysaÿe and Arthur Grumiaux , while Adolphe Sax invented the saxophone in 1846. The composer César Franck was born in Liège in 1822. Contemporary popular music in Belgium is also of repute. Jazz musicians Django Reinhardt and Toots Thielemans and singer Jacques Brel have achieved global fame. Nowadays, singer Stromae has been a musical revelation in Europe and beyond, having great success. In rock/pop music, Telex , Front 242 , K's Choice , Hooverphonic , Zap Mama , Soulwax and dEUS are well known. In the heavy metal scene, bands like Machiavel , Channel Zero and Enthroned have a worldwide fan-base. [ 17 ] Belgian writer Georges Simenon Belgium has produced several well-known authors , including the poets Emile Verhaeren , Guido Gezelle , Robert Goffin and novelists Hendrik Conscience , Stijn Streuvels , Georges Simenon , Suzanne Lilar , Hugo Claus and Amélie Nothomb . The poet and playwright Maurice Maeterlinck won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1911. The Adventures of Tintin by Hergé is the best known of Franco-Belgian comics , but many other major authors, including Peyo ( The Smurfs ), André Franquin ( Gaston Lagaffe ), Morris ( Lucky Luke ), and Willy Vandersteen ( Suske en Wiske ) brought the Belgian cartoon strip industry a worldwide fame. [ 18 ] Additionally, crime author Agatha Christie created the character Hercule Poirot , a Belgian detective, who has served as a protagonist in a number of her mystery novels. Belgian cinema has brought a number of mainly Flemish novels to life on-screen. [ a ] Belgian directors include André Delvaux , Stijn Coninx , Luc and Jean-Pierre Dardenne ; well-known actors include Jean-Claude Van Damme , Jan Decleir and Marie Gillain ; and successful films include Bullhead , Man Bites Dog and The Alzheimer Affair . [ 19 ] Belgium is also home to a number of successful fashion designers. Folklore Further information: Folklore of Belgium The Gilles of Binche , in costume, wearing wax masks Folklore plays a major role in Belgium's cultural life; the country has a comparatively high number of processions, cavalcades , parades, ommegangs , ducasses, [ b ] kermesses , and other local festivals, nearly always with an originally religious or mythological background . The three-day Carnival of Binche , near Mons , with its Gilles (men dressed in high, plumed hats and bright costumes) is held just before Lent (the 40 days between Ash Wednesday and Easter ). Together with the 'Processional Giants and Dragons' of Ath , Brussels, Dendermonde , Mechelen and Mons, it is recognized by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity . [ 20 ] Other examples are the three-day Carnival of Aalst in February or March; the still very religious processions of the Holy Blood taking place in Bruges in May, the Virga Jesse procession held every seven years in Hasselt , the annual procession of Hanswijk in Mechelen, the 15 August festivities in Liège , and the Walloon festival in Namur . Originated in 1832 and revived in the 1960s, the Gentse Feesten (a music and theatre festival organized in Ghent around Belgian National Day , on 21 July) have become a modern tradition. Several of these festivals include sporting competitions, such as cycling , and many fall under the category of kermesses. A major non-official holiday is Saint Nicholas Day (Dutch: Sinterklaas , French: la Saint-Nicolas ), a festivity for children, and in Liège, for students. [ 21 ] It takes place each year on 6 December and is a sort of early Christmas . On the evening of 5 December, before going to bed, children put their shoes by the hearth with water or wine and a carrot for Saint Nicholas' horse or donkey . According to tradition, Saint Nicholas comes at night and travels down the chimney. He then takes the food and water or wine, leaves presents, goes back up, feeds his horse or donkey, and continues on his course. He also knows whether children have been good or bad. This holiday is especially loved by children in Belgium and the Netherlands. Dutch immigrants imported the tradition into the United States , where Saint Nicholas is now known as Santa Claus . Cuisine Main article: Belgian cuisine Moules-frites or mosselen met friet is a representative dish of Belgium. Belgium is famous for beer , chocolate , waffles and French fries . The national dishes are steak and fries , and mussels with fries . [ 22 ] [ 23 ] [ 24 ] Many highly ranked Belgian restaurants can be found in the most influential restaurant guides, such as the Michelin Guide . [ 25 ] One of the many beers with the high prestige is that of the Trappist monks. Technically, it is an ale and traditionally each abbey's beer is served in its own glass (the forms, heights and widths are different). There are only eleven breweries (six of them are Belgian) that are allowed to brew Trappist beer . [ citation needed ] Although Belgian gastronomy is connected to French cuisine, some recipes were reputedly invented there, such as French fries (despite the name, although their exact place of origin is uncertain), Flemish Carbonade (a beef stew with beer, mustard and bay laurel ), speculaas (or speculoos in French, a sort of cinnamon and ginger-flavoured shortcrust biscuit ), Brussels waffles (and their variant, Liège waffles ), waterzooi (a broth made with chicken or fish, cream and vegetables), endive with bechamel sauce, Brussels sprouts , Belgian pralines (Belgium has some of the most renowned chocolate houses), charcuterie (deli meats) and Paling in 't groen (river eels in a sauce of green herbs). Brands of Belgian chocolate and pralines, like Côte d'Or , Neuhaus , Leonidas and Godiva are famous, as well as independent producers such as Burie and Del Rey in Antwerp and Mary's in Brussels. [ 26 ] Belgium produces over 1100 varieties of beer . [ 27 ] [ 28 ] The Trappist beer of the Abbey of Westvleteren has repeatedly been rated the world's best beer. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] The biggest brewer in the world by volume is Anheuser-Busch InBev , based in Leuven . [ 32 ] Sports Main article: Sport in Belgium Eddy Merckx , widely regarded as one of the greatest cyclists of all time Since the 1970s, sports clubs and federations are organized separately within each language community . [ 33 ] The Administration de l'Éducation Physique et du Sport ( ADEPS ) is responsible for recognising the various French-speaking sports federations and also runs three sports centres in the Brussels-Capital Region. [ 34 ] Its Dutch-speaking counterpart is Sport Vlaanderen (formerly called BLOSO ). [ 35 ] Association football is the most popular sport in both parts of Belgium; also very popular are cycling, tennis, swimming, judo [ 36 ] and basketball. [ 37 ] The Belgium national football team has been among the best on the FIFA World Rankings ever since November 2015, when it reached the top spot for the first time. [ 38 ] Since the 1990s, the team has been the world's number one for the most years in history, only behind the records of Brazil and Spain . [ 39 ] With players like Jean-Marie Pfaff and Jan Ceulemans they won the silver medal at Euro 1980 , while a team with Eden Hazard , Kevin De Bruyne , Romelu Lukaku and Thibaut Courtois won the bronze medal at World Cup 2018 . Belgium hosted the Euro 1972 , and co-hosted the Euro 2000 with the Netherlands. Belgians hold the most Tour de France victories of any country except France. They also have the most victories on the UCI Road World Championships . With five victories in the Tour de France and numerous other cycling records, Belgian cyclist Eddy Merckx is often regarded as one of the greatest cyclists of all time. [ 40 ] Philippe Gilbert and Remco Evenepoel were the 2012 and 2022 world champions, respectively. Other well-known Belgian cyclists are Tom Boonen , Wout van Aert and Lotte Kopecky . Kim Clijsters and Justine Henin both were Player of the Year in the Women's Tennis Association as they were ranked the number one female tennis player. The Spa-Francorchamps motor-racing circuit hosts the Formula One World Championship Belgian Grand Prix . The Belgian driver, Jacky Ickx , won eight Grands Prix and six 24 Hours of Le Mans and finished twice as runner-up in the Formula One World Championship. Belgium also has a strong reputation in, motocross with the riders Joël Robert , Roger De Coster , Georges Jobé , Eric Geboers and Stefan Everts , among others. [ 41 ] Sporting events annually held in Belgium include the Memorial Van Damme athletics competition, the Belgian Grand Prix Formula One, and a number of classic cycle races such as the Tour of Flanders and Liège–Bastogne–Liège . 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[the Author's] top five [cyclists] of all time: 1 Eddy Merckx, 2 Bernard Hinault , 3 Lance Armstrong , 4 Miguel Indurain , 5 Jacques Anquetil ^ Woods, Bob (2008). Motocross History: From Local Scrambling to World Championship MX to Freestyle . Crabtree Publishing Company. p. 19. ISBN   978-0-7787-3987-6 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). Read more on Wikipedia →