United Kingdom

History Main articles: Formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and History of the British Isles Further information: History of the constitution of the United Kingdom and Timeline of British history Prior to the Treaty of Union Main articles: History of England , History of Wales , History of Scotland , and History of Ireland Further information: Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Scotland Stonehenge in Wiltshire is a ring of stones, each about 4 m (13 ft) high, 2 m (7 ft) wide and 25 tonnes , erected 2400–2200 BC. Settlement by Cro-Magnons of what was to become the United Kingdom occurred in waves beginning by about 30,000 years ago. [ 1 ] The island has been continuously inhabited since the last retreat of ice around 11,500 years ago. [ 2 ] By the end of the region's prehistoric period , the population is thought to have belonged largely to a culture termed Insular Celtic , comprising Brittonic Britain and Gaelic Ireland . [ 3 ] The Roman conquest , beginning in AD 43, and the 400-year rule of southern Britain , was followed by an invasion by Germanic Anglo-Saxon settlers, reducing the Brittonic area mainly to what was to become Wales , Cornwall and, until the latter stages of the Anglo-Saxon settlement, the Hen Ogledd (northern England and parts of southern Scotland). [ 4 ] Most of the region settled by the Anglo-Saxons became unified as the Kingdom of England in the 10th century. [ 5 ] Gaelic speakers in north-west Britain (with connections to the north-east of Ireland and traditionally supposed to have migrated from there in the 5th century) [ 6 ] united with the Picts to create the Kingdom of Scotland in the 9th century. [ 7 ] The Roman Baths in Bath, Somerset , are a well-preserved thermae from Roman Britain . In 1066, the Normans invaded England from northern France. After conquering England they seized large parts of Wales , conquered much of Ireland and were invited to settle in Scotland, bringing to each country feudalism on the Northern French model and Norman-French culture. [ 8 ] The Anglo-Norman ruling class greatly influenced, but eventually assimilated with, the local cultures. [ 9 ] Subsequent medieval English kings completed the conquest of Wales and tried unsuccessfully to annex Scotland . Asserting its independence in the 1320 Declaration of Arbroath , Scotland maintained its independence thereafter, albeit in near-constant conflict with England . [ 10 ] In 1215, Magna Carta was the first document to state that no government was above the law and that citizens have rights protecting them. [ 11 ] The English monarchs, through inheritance of substantial territories in France and claims to the French crown, were also heavily involved in conflicts in France, most notably the Hundred Years' War , while the Kings of Scots were in an alliance with the French during this period. [ 12 ] Early modern Britain saw religious conflict resulting from the Reformation and the introduction of Protestant state churches in each country. [ 13 ] The English Reformation ushered in political, constitutional, social and cultural change in the 16th century and established the Church of England . It defined a national identity for England and slowly, but profoundly, changed people's religious beliefs. [ 14 ] Wales was fully incorporated into the Kingdom of England , [ 15 ] and Ireland was constituted as a kingdom in personal union with the English crown. [ 16 ] During the Plantation of Ulster in the 17th century, the lands of the Catholic Gaelic nobility were confiscated by the Crown and granted to Protestant settlers from England and Scotland. [ 17 ] The Bayeux Tapestry depicts the Battle of Hastings , 1066, and the events leading to it. The Union of the Crowns occurred in 1603 when James VI of Scotland inherited the thrones of England and Ireland, subsequently moving his court from Edinburgh to London. Although unified under a single monarch, the three realms remained entirely separate political entities, preserving their respective parliaments, judicial systems, and established churches. [ 18 ] In the mid-17th century, all three kingdoms were involved in a series of connected wars (including the English Civil War ) which led to the temporary overthrow of the monarchy, with the execution of King Charles I , and the establishment of the short-lived unitary republic of the Commonwealth of England , Scotland and Ireland. [ 19 ] Although the monarchy was restored , the Interregnum along with the Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the subsequent Bill of Rights 1689 in England and Claim of Right Act 1689 in Scotland ensured that, unlike much of the rest of Europe, royal absolutism would not prevail, and a professed Catholic could never accede to the throne. The British constitution would develop on the basis of constitutional monarchy and the parliamentary system . [ 20 ] With the founding of the Royal Society in 1660, science was greatly encouraged. During this period, particularly in England, the development of naval power and an interest in voyages of discovery led to the acquisition and settlement of overseas colonies, particularly in North America and the Caribbean. [ 21 ] Though previous attempts at uniting the two kingdoms within Great Britain in 1606, 1667 and 1689 had proved unsuccessful, the attempt initiated in 1705 led to the Treaty of Union of 1706 being agreed and ratified by both parliaments. Union of England and Scotland Main articles: Treaty of Union and Kingdom of Great Britain The Treaty of Union which unified the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Scotland on 1 May 1707 On 1 May 1707 the Kingdom of Great Britain was formed, the result of the Acts of Union 1707 between the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Scotland . [ 22 ] In the 18th century cabinet government developed under Robert Walpole , who is considered the de facto first prime minister from 1721 to 1742. A series of Jacobite uprisings sought to remove the Protestant House of Hanover from the throne and restore the Catholic House of Stuart . In 1746, the Jacobites were defeated at the Battle of Culloden , after which the Scottish Highlanders were forcibly assimilated into Scotland by revoking the feudal independence of clan chiefs . The British colonies in North America that broke away in the American War of Independence became the United States . British imperial ambition turned towards Asia, particularly to India . [ 23 ] British merchants played a leading part in the Atlantic slave trade , mainly between 1662 and 1807 when British or British-colonial slave ships transported nearly 3.3 million slaves from Africa. [ 24 ] The slaves were taken to work on plantations , principally in the Caribbean but also in North America . [ 25 ] However, with pressure from the abolitionist movement , Parliament banned the trade in 1807, banned slavery in the British Empire in 1833, and Britain took a leading role in the movement to abolish slavery worldwide through the blockade of Africa and pressing other nations to end their trade with a series of treaties. [ 26 ] United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland Main articles: History of the United Kingdom , Acts of Union 1800 , and United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland Victoria reigned as Queen of the United Kingdom and Empress of India during the 19th century. In 1800, the parliaments of Great Britain and Ireland each passed an Act of Union, uniting the two kingdoms and creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on 1 January 1801. [ 27 ] After the defeat of France at the end of the French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars (1792–1815), the United Kingdom emerged as the principal naval and imperial power (with London the largest city in the world from about 1830 ). [ 28 ] Unchallenged at sea , British dominance was later described as the Pax Britannica ("British Peace"), a period of relative peace amongst the great powers (1815–1914) during which the British Empire became the global hegemon [ 29 ] [ 30 ] and adopted the role of global policeman . [ 31 ] [ 32 ] From 1853 to 1856 Britain took part in the Crimean War , allied with the Ottoman Empire against Tsarist Russia . [ 33 ] Following the Indian Rebellion of 1857 the British government led by Lord Palmerston assumed direct rule over India . Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, British dominance of much of world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of regions such as East Asia and Latin America . [ 34 ] Throughout the Victorian era (1837–1901) political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies. Beginning with the Great Reform Act in 1832, Parliament gradually widened the voting franchise , with the 1884 Reform Act championed by William Gladstone granting suffrage to a majority of males for the first time. The British population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation , causing significant social and economic stresses. [ 35 ] By the late 19th century, Conservative governments under Benjamin Disraeli and Lord Salisbury accelerated imperial expansion in Africa , sustained a foreign policy of " splendid isolation " from European alliances, and intensified strategic containment of the Russian Empire in Central Asia , a competition known as the Great Game . [ 36 ] During this time, Canada , Australia and New Zealand were granted self-governing dominion status. [ 37 ] At the turn of the 20th century, Britain's industrial dominance became challenged by the German Empire and the United States . [ 38 ] The Edwardian era (1901–1910) saw social reform and home rule for Ireland become important domestic issues, while the Labour Party emerged from an alliance of trade unions and small socialist groups in 1900, and suffragettes campaigned for women's right to vote. [ 39 ] World wars and partition of Ireland Main articles: History of the United Kingdom during the First World War , Partition of Ireland , Interwar Britain , United Kingdom home front during the Second World War , and Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II Wreaths being laid during the Remembrance Sunday service at the Cenotaph in Whitehall , London A Spitfire and a Hurricane as flown in the Battle of Britain during the Second World War Britain was one of the principal Allies that defeated the Central Powers in the First World War (1914–1918). Alongside their French, Russian and (after 1917) American counterparts, [ 40 ] British armed forces were engaged across much of the British Empire and in several regions of Europe, particularly on the Western Front . [ 41 ] The high fatalities of trench warfare caused the loss of much of a generation of men, with lasting social effects in the nation and a great disruption in the social order. Britain had suffered 2.5 million casualties and finished the war with a huge national debt. [ 41 ] The consequences of the war persuaded the government to expand the right to vote in national and local elections to all adult men and most adult women with the Representation of the People Act 1918 . [ 41 ] After the war Britain became a permanent member of the Executive Council of the League of Nations and received a mandate over a number of former German and Ottoman colonies. Under the leadership of David Lloyd George , the British Empire reached its greatest extent, covering a fifth of the world's land surface and a quarter of its population. [ 42 ] By the mid-1920s most of the British population could listen to BBC radio programmes. [ 43 ] [ 44 ] Experimental television broadcasts began in 1929 and the first scheduled BBC Television Service commenced in 1936. [ 45 ] The rise of Irish nationalism , and disputes within Ireland over the terms of Irish Home Rule , led eventually to the partition of the island in 1921. [ 46 ] A period of conflict in what is now Northern Ireland occurred from June 1920 until June 1922. The Irish Free State became independent, initially with Dominion status in 1922, and unambiguously independent in 1931 . Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom. [ 47 ] The 1928 Equal Franchise Act gave women electoral equality with men in national elections. Strikes in the mid-1920s culminated in the General Strike of 1926 . Still suffering from the long-term economic effects of the First World War, Britain was severely impacted by the Great Depression (1929–1932), which intensified hardship in old industrial areas in traditional sectors, led to mass unemployment peaking near 3 million, and precipitated widespread political instability and social unrest. A coalition government was formed in 1931. [ 48 ] Nonetheless, Britain was described as "a very wealthy country, formidable in arms, ruthless in pursuit of its interests and sitting at the heart of a global production system." [ 49 ] After Nazi Germany 's invasion of Poland in 1939, Britain entered the Second World War . Despite the defeat of its European allies in the first year, Britain and its empire continued the war against Germany. [ 49 ] In 1940 the Royal Air Force successfully defended British airspace by repelling the German Luftwaffe in the Battle of Britain . Urban areas suffered heavy bombing during the Blitz . The Grand Alliance of Britain, the United States and the Soviet Union formed in 1941, leading the Allies against the Axis powers . There were eventual hard-fought victories in the Battle of the Atlantic , the North Africa campaign and the Italian campaign . British forces played important roles in the Normandy landings of 1944 and the liberation of Europe . The British Army led the Burma campaign against Japan, and the British Pacific Fleet fought Japan at sea. British scientists contributed to the American Manhattan Project , whose task was to build a nuclear weapon . [ 50 ] Post-war 20th century Main articles: Post-war Britain (1945–1979) and Social history of post-war Britain (1945–1979) The British Empire at its territorial peak in 1921 The United Kingdom was one of the Big Three powers (with the United States and the Soviet Union) who met to plan the post-war world ; [ 51 ] it drafted the Declaration by United Nations with the United States and became one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council . It worked closely with the United States to establish the International Monetary Fund , the World Bank and NATO . [ 52 ] The war left the UK severely weakened and financially dependent on the American Marshall Plan , [ 53 ] but it was spared the total war that devastated eastern Europe . [ 54 ] In the immediate post-war years the Labour government under Clement Attlee initiated a radical programme of reforms, which significantly affected British society in the following decades . [ 55 ] Major industries and public utilities were nationalised , a welfare state was established, and a comprehensive, publicly funded healthcare system, the National Health Service , was created. [ 56 ] The rise of nationalism in the colonies coincided with Britain's much-diminished economic position after its involvement in the First World War and in the Second World War , so that a policy of decolonisation was unavoidable. [ 57 ] [ 58 ] [ 59 ] Independence was granted to India and Pakistan in 1947. [ 60 ] Over the next three decades, most colonies of the British Empire gained their independence, and many became members of the Commonwealth of Nations . [ 61 ] The UK was the third country to develop a nuclear weapons arsenal , with its first atomic bomb test, Operation Hurricane , in 1952, although the post-war limitations of Britain's international role were illustrated by the Suez Crisis of 1956. As a result of a shortage of workers in the 1950s, the government encouraged immigration from Commonwealth countries . In the following decades the UK became a more multiracial and multicultural society. [ 62 ] Despite rising living standards in the late 1950s and 1960s, the United Kingdom's economic performance was less successful than many of its main competitors such as France, West Germany and Japan. In 1969, the United Kingdom was the first democratic nation to lower its voting age to 18 . [ 63 ] In the decades-long process of European integration the UK was a founding member of the Western European Union , established with the London and Paris Conferences in 1954. In 1960 the UK was one of the seven founding members of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), but in 1973 it left to join the European Communities (EC). In a 1975 referendum 67 per cent voted to stay in it. [ 64 ] When the EC became the European Union (EU) in 1993, the UK was one of the 12 founding member states. From the late 1960s, Northern Ireland experienced communal and paramilitary violence, sometimes affecting other parts of the UK, known as the Troubles . It is usually considered to have ended with the 1998 Belfast "Good Friday" Agreement . [ 65 ] Following a period of widespread economic slowdown and industrial strife in the 1970s, the Conservative government of the 1980s led by Margaret Thatcher initiated a radical policy of monetarism , deregulation , particularly of the financial sector (for example, the Big Bang in 1986) and labour markets, the sale of state-owned companies (privatisation), and the withdrawal of subsidies to others. [ 66 ] In 1982, Argentina invaded the British territories of South Georgia and the Falkland Islands , leading to the 10-week Falklands War in which Argentine forces were defeated. The inhabitants of the islands strongly favour British sovereignty, expressed in a 2013 referendum . From 1984 the British economy was helped by the inflow of substantial North Sea oil revenues. [ 67 ] Another British Overseas Territory, Gibraltar , [ 68 ] is a key military base ; a referendum in 2002 on shared sovereignty with Spain was rejected. By the late 20th century, major changes were made to the governance of the UK with the establishment of devolved administrations for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. [ 69 ] The statutory incorporation followed acceptance of the European Convention on Human Rights . The UK remained a great power with global diplomatic and military influence and a leading role in the United Nations and NATO. [ 70 ] 21st century Main articles: Political history of the United Kingdom (1979–present) and Social history of the United Kingdom (1979–present) Prime Minister Boris Johnson signs the Brexit withdrawal agreement in 2020, formally withdrawing the UK from the European Union (EU). The United Kingdom broadly supported the United States' approach to the " war on terror " in the early 21st century. [ 71 ] British troops fought in the war in Afghanistan , but controversy surrounded Britain's military deployment in Iraq , which saw the largest protest in British history in opposition to the government led by Tony Blair . [ 72 ] The Great Recession (2007–2010) severely affected the British economy, [ 73 ] and was followed by a period of weak growth and stagnation. [ 74 ] [ 75 ] The Cameron–Clegg coalition government of 2010 introduced austerity measures intended to tackle the substantial public deficits. [ 76 ] A referendum on Scottish independence in 2014 resulted in the Scottish electorate voting by 55.3 to 44.7 per cent to remain part of the United Kingdom. [ 77 ] In 2016, 51.9 per cent of voters in the UK voted to leave the European Union (EU). [ 78 ] The UK left the EU in 2020. [ 79 ] On 1 May 2021 the EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement , a free trade agreement between the UK and the EU, came into force. [ 80 ] [ 81 ] The COVID-19 pandemic had a severe impact on the British economy , caused major disruptions to education and had far-reaching impacts on society and politics in 2020 and 2021. [ 82 ] [ 83 ] [ 84 ] The United Kingdom was the first country in the world to use an approved COVID-19 vaccine . Developing a vaccine in the UK allowed the rollout to be amongst the fastest in the world. [ 85 ] [ 86 ] ^ "Ancient skeleton was 'even older' Archived 13 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine ". BBC News . 30 October 2007. Retrieved 27 April 2011. ^ "A 12,000-year story - revealing the history of settlers in Britain from the end of the Ice Age to the present day | University of Oxford" . ox.ac.uk . 9 February 2018 . Retrieved 6 July 2025 . [ dead link ] ^ Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic culture: A historical encyclopedia . Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p.  973 . ISBN   978-1-85109-440-0 . ^ Davies, John ; Jenkins, Nigel ; Baines, Menna; Lynch, Peredur I. , eds. (2008). The Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales . Cardiff: University of Wales Press. p. 915. ISBN   978-0-7083-1953-6 . ^ "Short Athelstan biography" . BBC History . Archived from the original on 13 February 2007 . Retrieved 9 April 2013 . ^ Mackie, J.D. (1991). A History of Scotland . London: Penguin. pp.  18–19 . ISBN   978-0-14-013649-4 ; Campbell, Ewan (1999). Saints and Sea-kings: The First Kingdom of the Scots . Edinburgh: Canongate. pp.  8– 15. ISBN   978-0-86241-874-8 . ^ Haigh, Christopher (1990). The Cambridge Historical Encyclopedia of Great Britain and Ireland . Cambridge University Press. p.  30 . ISBN   978-0-521-39552-6 . ^ Ganshof, F.L. (1996). Feudalism . University of Toronto. p. 165. ISBN   978-0-8020-7158-3 . ^ Chibnall, Marjorie (1999). The Debate on the Norman Conquest . Manchester University Press. pp.  115– 122. ISBN   978-0-7190-4913-2 . Archived from the original on 26 March 2023 . Retrieved 20 March 2023 . ^ "The Declaration of Arbroath" . NMS . 3 June 2023 . Retrieved 6 July 2025 . ^ "Magna Carta" . parliament.uk . Retrieved 27 May 2024 . "The contents of Magna Carta" . parliament.uk. Archived from the original on 28 August 2022 . Retrieved 27 May 2024 . "Magna Carta Key Facts" . Britannica. Archived from the original on 27 May 2024 . Retrieved 27 May 2024 . ^ Keen, Maurice. "The Hundred Years' War" Archived 14 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine . BBC History. ^ The Reformation in England and Scotland Archived 15 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine and Ireland: The Reformation Period & Ireland under Elizabeth I Archived 21 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine , Encyclopædia Britannica Online. ^ "English Reformation c1527-1590" . The National Archives . Archived from the original on 2 December 2022 . Retrieved 20 January 2023 . ^ "British History in Depth – Wales under the Tudors" . BBC History . 5 November 2009. Archived from the original on 7 February 2012 . Retrieved 21 September 2010 . ^ Nicholls, Mark (1999). A history of the modern British Isles, 1529–1603: The two kingdoms . Oxford: Blackwell. pp.  171– 172. ISBN   978-0-631-19334-0 . ^ Canny, Nicholas P. (2003). Making Ireland British, 1580–1650 . Oxford University Press. pp.  189– 200. ISBN   978-0-19-925905-2 . ^ Ross, D. (2002). Chronology of Scottish History . Glasgow: Geddes & Grosset. p. 56. ISBN   978-1-85534-380-1 ; Hearn, J. (2002). Claiming Scotland: National Identity and Liberal Culture . Edinburgh University Press. p. 104. ISBN   978-1-902930-16-9 . ^ "English Civil Wars" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Archived from the original on 2 May 2015 . Retrieved 28 April 2013 . ; "Scotland and the Commonwealth: 1651–1660" . Archontology.org. 14 March 2010. Archived from the original on 16 July 2012 . Retrieved 9 March 2015 . ^ Lodge, Richard (2007) [1910]. The History of England – From the Restoration to the Death of William III (1660–1702) . Read Books. p. 8. ISBN   978-1-4067-0897-4 . Archived from the original on 28 March 2024 . Retrieved 29 September 2020 . ^ "Tudor Period and the Birth of a Regular Navy" . Royal Navy History . Institute of Naval History. Archived from the original on 3 November 2011 . Retrieved 8 March 2015 . ; Canny, Nicholas (1998). The Origins of Empire, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume I . Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-924676-2 . Archived from the original on 11 January 2023 . Retrieved 29 September 2020 . ^ "Articles of Union with Scotland 1707" . UK Parliament. Archived from the original on 8 June 2012 . Retrieved 19 October 2008 . ; "Acts of Union 1707" . UK Parliament. Archived from the original on 27 December 2010 . Retrieved 6 January 2011 . ; "Treaty (act) of Union 1706" . Scottish History online. Archived from the original on 27 May 2019 . Retrieved 3 February 2011 . ^ Library of Congress, The Impact of the American Revolution Abroad Archived 28 March 2024 at the Wayback Machine , p. 73. ^ Morgan, Kenneth (2007). Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America . Oxford University Press, USA. p. 12. ISBN   978-0-19-156627-1 . Archived from the original on 28 March 2024 . Retrieved 5 October 2020 . ^ Morgan, Kenneth (2007). Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America . Oxford University Press, US. p. 15. ISBN   978-0-19-156627-1 . Archived from the original on 28 March 2024 . Retrieved 5 October 2020 . ^ Sailing against slavery Archived 3 November 2008 at the Wayback Machine . BBC Devon. 2007.; Lovejoy, Paul E. (2000). Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. p.  290 . ISBN   978-0-521-78012-4 . ^ "The Act of Union" . Act of Union Virtual Library. Archived from the original on 15 April 2012 . Retrieved 15 May 2006 . ^ Tellier, L.-N. (2009). Urban World History: an Economic and Geographical Perspective . Quebec: PUQ. p. 463. ISBN   978-2-7605-1588-8 . ^ Mathias, P. (2001). The First Industrial Nation: the Economic History of Britain, 1700–1914 . London: Routledge. ISBN   978-0-415-26672-7 . ; Ferguson, Niall (2004). Empire: The rise and demise of the British world order and the lessons for global power . New York: Basic Books. ISBN   978-0-465-02328-8 . ^ McDougall, Walter A. (4 May 2023). "20th-century international relations" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Archived from the original on 12 July 2019 . Retrieved 6 May 2023 . ^ Sondhaus, L. (2004). Navies in Modern World History . London: Reaktion Books. p. 9. ISBN   978-1-86189-202-7 . ^ Porter, Andrew (1998). The Nineteenth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume III . Oxford University Press. p. 332. ISBN   978-0-19-924678-6 . ^ Benn, David Wedgwood (March 2012). "The Crimean War and its lessons for today". International Affairs . 88 (2). Oxford University Press: 387– 391. doi : 10.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01078.x . JSTOR   41428613 . ^ Porter, Andrew (1998). The Nineteenth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume III . Oxford University Press. p. 8. ISBN   978-0-19-924678-6 . ; Marshall, P.J. (1996). The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire . Cambridge University Press. pp.  156– 157. ISBN   978-0-521-00254-7 . Archived from the original on 16 January 2023 . Retrieved 29 September 2020 . ^ Tompson, Richard S. (2003). Great Britain: a reference guide from the Renaissance to the present . New York: Facts on File. p. 63. ISBN   978-0-8160-4474-0 . ^ Fromkin, David (1980). "The Great Game in Asia" . Foreign Affairs . 58 (4): 936– 951. doi : 10.2307/20040512 . ISSN   0015-7120 . JSTOR   20040512 . Archived from the original on 12 April 2021 . Retrieved 4 June 2023 . ^ Hosch, William L. (2009). World War I: People, Politics, and Power . America at War. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing. p. 21. ISBN   978-1-61530-048-8 . ^ Zarembka, Paul (2013). Contradictions: Finance, Greed, and Labor Unequally Paid . Emerald Group Publishing. ISBN   978-1-78190-670-5 . Archived from the original on 28 March 2024 . Retrieved 21 October 2020 . ^ Sophia A. Van Wingerden, The women's suffrage movement in Britain, 1866–1928 (1999) ch 1. ^ Turner, John (1988). Britain and the First World War . London: Unwin Hyman. pp. 22–35. ISBN   978-0-04-445109-9 . ^ a b c Westwell, I.; Cove, D. (eds) (2002). History of World War I, Volume 3 . London: Marshall Cavendish. pp. 698, 705. ISBN   978-0-7614-7231-5 . ^ Turner, J. (1988). Britain and the First World War . Abingdon: Routledge. p. 41. ISBN   978-0-04-445109-9 . ^ "100 years of radio since Marconi's big breakthrough" . Ofcom . 15 June 2020. Archived from the original on 4 August 2020 . Retrieved 17 November 2020 . ^ Linfoot, Matthew. "History of the BBC: The origins of BBC Local Radio" . BBC . Archived from the original on 20 September 2022 . Retrieved 18 September 2022 . ^ "History of the BBC: 1920s" . BBC . Archived from the original on 26 September 2022 . Retrieved 18 September 2022 . ^ SR&O 1921 /533 of 3 May 1921. ^ "The Anglo-Irish Treaty, 6 December 1921" . CAIN Web Service . Archived from the original on 14 May 2012 . Retrieved 15 May 2006 . ^ Rubinstein, W.D. (2004). Capitalism, Culture, and Decline in Britain, 1750–1990 . Abingdon: Routledge. p. 11. ISBN   978-0-415-03719-8 . ^ a b Edgerton, David (2012). Britain's War Machine . Penguin. Archived from the original on 28 April 2020 . Retrieved 10 May 2020 ; "Britain's War Machine: Weapons, Resources and Experts in the Second World War" . Reviews in History . Archived from the original on 12 June 2020 . Retrieved 10 May 2020 . ^ Septimus H. Paul (2000). Nuclear Rivals: Anglo-American Atomic Relations, 1941–1952 . Ohio State U.P. pp.  1– 5. ISBN   978-0-8142-0852-6 . ^ Doenecke, Justus D. ; Stoler, Mark A. (2005). Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's foreign policies, 1933–1945 . Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN   978-0-8476-9416-7 . Archived from the original on 28 March 2024 . Retrieved 19 March 2016 . ; Kelly, Brian. The Four Policemen and Postwar Planning, 1943–1945: The Collision of Realist and Idealist Perspectives . Indiana University of Pennsylvania. Archived from the original on 22 October 2015 . Retrieved 25 August 2015 . ^ "The "Special Relationship" between Great Britain and the United States Began with FDR" . Roosevelt Institute . 22 July 2010. Archived from the original on 25 January 2018 . Retrieved 24 January 2018 . and the joint efforts of both powers to create a new post-war strategic and economic order through the drafting of the Atlantic Charter; the establishment of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank; and the creation of the United Nations. ; "Remarks by the President Obama and Prime Minister Cameron in Joint Press Conference" (Press release). The White House. 22 April 2016. Archived from the original on 8 June 2021 . Retrieved 24 January 2018 . That's what we built after World War II. The United States and the UK designed a set of institutions – whether it was the United Nations, or the Bretton Woods structure, IMF, World Bank, NATO, across the board. ^ "Britain to make its final payment on World War II loan from U.S." The New York Times . 28 December 2006. Archived from the original on 20 August 2017 . Retrieved 25 August 2011 . ^ Reynolds, David (17 April 2011). "Britain's War Machine by David Edgerton – review" . The Guardian . London. Archived from the original on 12 June 2020 . Retrieved 10 May 2020 . ^ Francis, Martin (1997). Ideas and policies under Labour, 1945–1951: Building a new Britain . Manchester University Press. pp.  225– 233. ISBN   978-0-7190-4833-3 . ^ Lee, Stephen J. (1996). Aspects of British political history, 1914–1995 . London; New York: Routledge. pp.  173 –199. ISBN   978-0-415-13103-2 . ^ Brown, Judith (1998). The Twentieth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume IV . Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-924679-3 . Archived from the original on 3 January 2014 . Retrieved 22 July 2009 . p. 319. ^ Louis, Wm. Roger (2006). Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez and Decolonization . I.B. Tauris. ISBN   978-1-84511-347-6 . Archived from the original on 22 February 2017 . Retrieved 22 July 2009 . p. 337. ^ Abernethy, David (2000). The Dynamics of Global Dominance, European Overseas Empires 1415–1980 . Yale University Press. ISBN   978-0-300-09314-8 . Archived from the original on 14 December 2011 . Retrieved 22 July 2009 . p. 146. ^ Larres, Klaus (2009). A companion to Europe since 1945 . Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 118. ISBN   978-1-4051-0612-2 . Archived from the original on 28 March 2024 . Retrieved 29 September 2020 . ^ "Country List" . Commonwealth Secretariat . 19 March 2009. Archived from the original on 6 May 2013 . Retrieved 8 March 2015 . ^ Julios, Christina (2008). Contemporary British identity: English language, migrants, and public discourse . Studies in migration and diaspora. Aldershot: Ashgate. p. 84. ISBN   978-0-7546-7158-9 . Archived from the original on 28 March 2024 . Retrieved 29 September 2020 . ^ Loughran, Thomas; Mycock, Andrew; Tonge, Jonathan (3 April 2021). "A coming of age: how and why the UK became the first democracy to allow votes for 18-year-olds" . Contemporary British History . 35 (2): 284– 313. doi : 10.1080/13619462.2021.1890589 . ISSN   1361-9462 . S2CID   233956982 . Archived from the original on 4 June 2023 . Retrieved 24 May 2024 . ^ "1975: UK embraces Europe in referendum" . BBC News . Archived from the original on 20 June 2018 . Retrieved 8 March 2015 . ^ Aughey, Arthur (2005). The Politics of Northern Ireland: Beyond the Belfast Agreement . London: Routledge. p.  7 . ISBN   978-0-415-32788-6 . ; "The troubles were over, but the killing continued. Some of the heirs to Ireland's violent traditions refused to give up their inheritance." Holland, Jack (1999). Hope against History: The Course of Conflict in Northern Ireland . New York: Henry Holt. p.  221 . ISBN   978-0-8050-6087-4 . ; Elliot, Marianne (2007). The Long Road to Peace in Northern Ireland: Peace Lectures from the Institute of Irish Studies at Liverpool University. University of Liverpool Institute of Irish Studies, Liverpool University Press. p. 2. ISBN   978-1-84631-065-2 . ^ Dorey, Peter (1995). British politics since 1945 . Making contemporary Britain. Oxford: Blackwell. pp.  164– 223. ISBN   978-0-631-19075-2 . ^ Griffiths, Alan; Wall, Stuart (2007). Applied Economics (PDF) (11th ed.). Harlow: Financial Times Press. p. 6. ISBN   978-0-273-70822-3 . Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 August 2009 . Retrieved 26 December 2010 . ^ Peace and Friendship Treaty of Utrecht between Spain and Great Britain   – via Wikisource . ^ Keating, Michael (1 January 1998). "Reforging the Union: Devolution and Constitutional Change in the United Kingdom". Publius: The Journal of Federalism . 28 (1): 217– 234. doi : 10.1093/oxfordjournals.pubjof.a029948 . ^ McCourt, David (2014). Britain and World Power Since 1945: Constructing a Nation's Role in International Politics . University of Michigan Press . ISBN   978-0-472-07221-7 . Archived from the original on 28 March 2024 . Retrieved 21 October 2020 . ^ McSmith, Andy (5 July 2016). "The inside story of how Tony Blair led Britain to war in Iraq" . Independent . London. Archived from the original on 4 July 2016 . Retrieved 17 February 2022 . ^ Adams, Tim (11 February 2023). " 'A beautiful outpouring of rage': did Britain's biggest ever protest change the world?" . The Observer . London. Archived from the original on 6 April 2023 . Retrieved 5 June 2023 . ^ "Quarterly National Accounts – National accounts aggregates (ABMI Gross Domestic Product: chained volume measures: Seasonally adjusted £m, constant prices)" . Office for National Statistics. 20 December 2013. Archived from the original on 29 September 2015 . Retrieved 28 July 2023 . ^ Harari, Daniel (16 July 2024). "Low growth: The economy's biggest challenge" . House of Commons Library . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ Rees, Tom; Atkinson, Andrew; Aldrick, Philip (12 March 2023). "A Lost Decade Worse Than Japan's Threatens to Change UK Forever" . Bloomberg News . Archived from the original on 13 March 2023 . Retrieved 16 April 2025 . ^ "What is austerity and where could 'eye-watering' cuts fall now?" . BBC News . 7 November 2022. Archived from the original on 28 July 2023 . Retrieved 28 July 2023 . ^ "Scottish independence referendum – Results" . BBC News . Archived from the original on 18 September 2014 . Retrieved 18 February 2022 . ^ Witte, Griff; Adam, Karla; Balz, Dan (24 June 2016). "In stunning decision, Britain votes to leave the E.U." The Washington Post . Archived from the original on 30 November 2022 . Retrieved 24 June 2016 . ^ "Brexit: New era for UK as it completes separation from European Union" . BBC News . 1 January 2021. Archived from the original on 14 January 2021 . Retrieved 18 February 2022 . ^ "The EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement" . Archived from the original on 25 March 2023 . Retrieved 25 March 2023 . ^ "Free Trade Agreements EU-UK" . Retrieved 12 September 2025 . ^ "Coronavirus (COVID-19) in the UK" . gov.uk . Government of the United Kingdom. Archived from the original on 1 May 2021 . Retrieved 15 April 2020 . ^ "Coronavirus and the impact on output in the UK economy: April 2020" . ons.gov.uk . Government of the United Kingdom. Archived from the original on 2 August 2020 . Retrieved 2 August 2020 . ^ Walker, Andrew (10 June 2020). "Coronavirus: UK economy could be among worst hit of leading nations, says OECD" . BBC News . Archived from the original on 18 August 2020 . Retrieved 2 August 2020 . ^ "Landmark moment as first NHS patient receives COVID-19 vaccination" . NHS . 8 December 2020. Archived from the original on 25 February 2023. ^ "Oxford University/AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine approved" . UK Government . Archived from the original on 25 February 2023. Read more on Wikipedia →

Government and politics Main articles: Politics of the United Kingdom , Government of the United Kingdom , and Monarchy of the United Kingdom Further information: Constitution of the United Kingdom The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary democracy [ 1 ] operating under the Westminster system , otherwise known as a "democratic parliamentary monarchy". [ 2 ] It is a centralised , unitary state [ 3 ] [ 4 ] wherein the Parliament of the United Kingdom is sovereign . [ 5 ] Parliament is made up of the elected House of Commons , the appointed House of Lords and the Crown (as personified by the monarch ). [ a ] [ 8 ] The main business of Parliament takes place in the two houses, [ 8 ] but royal assent is required for a bill to become an act of Parliament (that is, statute law ). [ 9 ] As a result of parliamentary sovereignty, the British constitution is uncodified , consisting mostly of disparate written sources, including parliamentary statutes , judge-made case law and international treaties, together with constitutional conventions . [ 10 ] Nevertheless, the Supreme Court recognises a number of principles underlying the British constitution, such as parliamentary sovereignty, the rule of law , democracy and upholding international law . [ 11 ] King Charles III is the monarch and head of state of the United Kingdom and 14 other independent sovereign states , referred to as " Commonwealth realms ". The monarch is formally vested with all executive authority as the personal embodiment of the Crown and is "fundamental to the law and working of government in the UK". [ 12 ] The disposition of such powers however, including those belonging to the royal prerogative , is generally exercised only on the advice of ministers of the Crown responsible to Parliament and thence to the electorate. Nevertheless, in the performance of official duties the monarch has "the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn". [ 13 ] In addition the monarch has a number of reserve powers at his disposal to uphold responsible government and prevent constitutional crises . [ b ] The prime minister is the head of government in the United Kingdom. [ 15 ] Acting under the direction and supervision of a Cabinet of senior ministers selected and led by the prime minister, His Majesty's Government serves as the principal instrument for public policymaking, administers public services and, through the Privy Council , promulgates statutory instruments and tenders advice to the monarch. [ 16 ] [ 17 ] [ 18 ] Nearly all prime ministers have served concurrently as First Lord of the Treasury [ 19 ] and all prime ministers have continuously served as First Lord of the Treasury since 1905, [ 20 ] Minister for the Civil Service since 1968, [ 21 ] and Minister for the Union since 2019. [ 22 ] While appointed by the monarch, in modern times the prime minister is, by convention , an MP, the leader of the political party with the most seats in the House of Commons, and holds office by virtue of their ability to command the confidence of the House of Commons. [ 23 ] [ 24 ] The prime minister as of 20 July 2026, is Andy Burnham , the leader of the Labour Party . Although not part of the United Kingdom, the three Crown Dependencies of Jersey , Guernsey and the Isle of Man , as well as the 14 British Overseas Territories , are subject to the sovereignty of the British Crown. [ 25 ] Democratic backsliding was found by the 2026 V-Dem Democracy Report for the United Kingdom. [ 26 ] Elections Main article: Elections in the United Kingdom The Palace of Westminster in London is the seat of both houses of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. For general elections (elections to the House of Commons), the United Kingdom is divided into 650 constituencies , each of which is represented by one member of Parliament (MP) elected by the first-past-the-post system. [ 27 ] MPs hold office for up to five years and must then stand for re-election if they wish to continue to be an MP. [ 27 ] The Conservative Party , colloquially known as the Tory Party or the Tories, and the Labour Party have been the dominant political parties in the country since the 1920s, leading to the UK being described as a two-party system . However, since the 1920s other political parties have won seats in the House of Commons, although never more than the Conservatives or Labour. [ 28 ] The 2020s marked the erosion of the two-party system and the growth of a multi-party system. [ 29 ] Administrative divisions Main articles: Countries of the United Kingdom , Administrative geography of the United Kingdom , and List of counties in the United Kingdom The four countries of the United Kingdom The geographical division of the United Kingdom into counties or shires began in England and Scotland in the early Middle Ages , and was completed throughout Great Britain and Ireland by the early modern period . [ 30 ] Modern local government by elected councils, partly based on the ancient counties, was established by separate Acts of Parliament: in England and Wales in 1888 , Scotland in 1889 and Ireland in 1898 , meaning there is no consistent system of administrative or geographic demarcation across the UK, [ 31 ] and England and Wales , Scotland and Northern Ireland each have their own distinct jurisdictions. [ 32 ] Until the 19th century there was little change to those arrangements, but there has since been a constant evolution of role and function. [ 33 ] Local government in England is complex, with the distribution of functions varying according to local arrangements. The upper-tier subdivisions of England are the nine regions , used primarily for statistical purposes. [ 34 ] One of the regions, Greater London , has had a directly elected assembly and mayor since 2000 following popular support for the proposal in a 1998 referendum . [ 35 ] Local government in Scotland is divided into 32 council areas with a wide variation in size and population. The cities of Glasgow , Edinburgh, Aberdeen and Dundee are separate council areas, as is the Highland Council , which includes a third of Scotland's area but only just over 200,000 people. Local councils are made up of elected councillors, of whom there are 1,223. [ 36 ] Local government in Wales consists of 22 unitary authorities , each led by a leader and cabinet elected by the council itself. These include the cities of Cardiff, Swansea and Newport , which are unitary authorities in their own right. [ 37 ] Elections are held every four years under the first-past-the-post system. [ 37 ] Local government in Northern Ireland since 2015 has been organised into 11 district councils, each elected by single transferable vote. Their powers are limited to services such as waste collection, dog control, and maintaining parks and cemeteries. [ 38 ] This system was introduced after a 2008 decision by the executive to replace the previous structure of 26 districts which had been in place since 1973. [ 39 ] Devolution Main article: Devolution in the United Kingdom Further information: Devolved, reserved and excepted matters Prime Minister Keir Starmer meets with the first ministers of Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales during the Council of Nations and Regions summit. In the United Kingdom a process of devolution has transferred various powers from the UK Government to three of the four UK countries—Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales—as well as to the regions of England, which since 1999 have their own governments and parliaments that control various devolved matters. [ 40 ] These powers vary and have been moved to the Scottish Government , the Welsh Government , the Northern Ireland Executive and (in England) to strategic authorities : the Greater London Authority , combined authorities, and combined county authorities . [ 41 ] Amongst the devolved parliaments across the United Kingdom, the Scottish Parliament has the most extensive responsibilities for devolved powers , and has been described as "one of the most powerful devolved parliaments in the world". [ 42 ] [ 43 ] The United Kingdom has an uncodified constitution and constitutional matters are not amongst the powers that have been devolved. Under the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty , the UK Parliament could, in theory, therefore, abolish the Scottish Parliament, Senedd or Northern Ireland Assembly. [ 44 ] Though in the Scotland Act 2016 and the Wales Act 2017 it states that the Scottish Government and the Welsh Government "are a permanent part of the United Kingdom's constitutional arrangements". [ 45 ] [ 46 ] In practice it would be politically difficult for the UK Parliament to abolish devolution to the Scottish Parliament and the Senedd because these institutions were created by referendums. [ 47 ] The political constraints placed upon the UK Parliament's power to interfere with devolution in Northern Ireland are greater still, because devolution in Northern Ireland rests upon an international agreement with the Government of Ireland . [ 48 ] The UK Parliament restricts the three devolved parliaments' legislative powers in economic policy matters through an act passed in 2020. [ 49 ] England Unlike Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales, England does not have a separate devolved government or national parliament, [ 50 ] rather a process of devolution of powers from the central government to local authorities has taken place, first in 1998. [ 51 ] The Greater London Authority was set up following a referendum in 1998 . Colloquially known as City Hall, it is the devolved regional government body for Greater London. It consists of two political branches: a directly elected Mayor of London and the London Assembly , which serves as a check and balance on the Mayor. A combined authority is a type of local government institution introduced in England outside Greater London by the Local Democracy, Economic Development and Construction Act 2009 . CAs allow a group of local authorities to pool appropriate responsibility and receive certain devolved functions from central government in order to deliver transport and economic policy more effectively over a wider area. [ 52 ] A combined county authority is a similar type of local-government institution introduced in England outside Greater London by the Levelling-up and Regeneration Act 2023 , but may only be formed by upper-tier authorities: county councils and unitary authorities . [ 53 ] Scotland Main article: Responsibilities of the Scottish Government Prime Minister Keir Starmer meets with First Minister of Scotland John Swinney , the head of the Scottish Government , at Bute House , Edinburgh. Since 1999 Scotland has had a devolved national government and parliament with wide-ranging powers over any matter that has not been specifically reserved to the UK Parliament. [ 54 ] [ 55 ] Scotland has the most devolved powers of any of the three devolved parliaments in the United Kingdom, with full legislative control over education , law and order , the economy , healthcare , elections , Crown Estate Scotland , the planning system and housing . [ 56 ] Additional powers were transferred to the Scottish Parliament via the Scotland Act 2012 and the Scotland Act 2016 , such as some taxation powers , including full control of income tax on income earned through employment, Land and Buildings Transaction Tax , Landfill Tax , Aggregates Levy, Air Departure Tax and Revenue Scotland , as well as aspects of the energy network , including renewable energy , energy efficiency and onshore oil and gas licensing . [ 57 ] [ 54 ] Their power over economic issues is significantly constrained by an act of the UK Parliament passed in 2020. [ 49 ] The Scottish Government is a Scottish National Party (SNP) minority government , [ 65 ] led by the first minister , currently John Swinney , the leader of the SNP . In 2014 the Scottish independence referendum was held, with 55.3 per cent voting against independence from the United Kingdom and 44.7 per cent voting in favour, resulting in Scotland staying within the United Kingdom. Local government in Scotland is divided into 32 council areas with a wide variation in size and population. Local councils are made up of elected councillors, of whom there are 1,223. [ 36 ] The Scottish Parliament is separate from the Scottish Government. It is made up of 129 elected members of the Scottish Parliament (MSPs). It is the law-making body of Scotland, and thus it scrutinises the work of the incumbent Scottish Government and considers any piece of proposed legislation through parliamentary debates, committees and parliamentary questions. [ 57 ] Wales Since 1999 Wales has had a devolved national government and legislature, known as the Senedd . Elections to the Senedd used the additional member system until 2026 when the voting system was changed to closed list proportional representation. The number of elected members also increased from 60 to 96, representing 16 six-member constituencies . The Senedd has more limited powers than those devolved to Scotland. [ 66 ] It can legislate on any matter not specifically reserved to the UK Parliament by Acts of Senedd Cymru . The Welsh Government is currently a Plaid Cymru minority government led by the first minister , Rhun ap Iorwerth . Local government in Wales consists of 22 unitary authorities, each led by a leader and cabinet elected by the council itself. Northern Ireland The devolved form of government in Northern Ireland is based on the 1998 Good Friday Agreement , which brought to an end a 30-year period of unionist - nationalist communal conflict known as the Troubles . The Agreement was confirmed by referendum and implemented later that year. It established power sharing arrangements for a devolved government and legislature, referred to as the Northern Ireland Executive and the Northern Ireland Assembly respectively. [ 67 ] Elections to the Assembly use the single transferable vote system. The Executive and Assembly have powers similar to those devolved to Scotland. [ 68 ] The Executive is led by a diarchy representing unionist and nationalist members of the Assembly. [ 69 ] The first minister and deputy first minister of Northern Ireland are the joint heads of government of Northern Ireland. [ 70 ] [ 71 ] Local government in Northern Ireland since 2015 has been divided between 11 councils with limited responsibilities. [ 38 ] Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of the United Kingdom UK prime minister Keir Starmer and US president Donald Trump shaking hands in a joint press conference in 2025. The UK and the US share a " Special Relationship ". The United Kingdom is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council and a member of NATO , AUKUS , the Commonwealth of Nations, the G7 , the G20 , the OECD , the WTO , the Council of Europe and the OSCE . [ 72 ] It maintains the British Council , an organisation specialising in international cultural and educational opportunities in over 100 countries. The UK remains a great power with considerable political, cultural, economic and military influence. [ 73 ] [ 74 ] The United Kingdom is said to have a " Special Relationship " with the United States and a close partnership with France – the " Entente cordiale " – and shares nuclear weapons technology with both countries; [ 75 ] [ 76 ] the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance is considered to be the oldest binding military alliance in the world. The UK is also closely linked with the Republic of Ireland; the two countries share a Common Travel Area and co-operate through the British-Irish Intergovernmental Conference and the British-Irish Council . Britain's global presence and influence is further amplified through its trading relations, foreign investments, official development assistance and military engagements. [ 77 ] Military Main articles: British Armed Forces and Military history of the United Kingdom    Overseas military installations of the United Kingdom, and locally raised units of the British Overseas Territories    Military interventions since 2000: Palliser (Sierra Leone); Herrick (Afghanistan); Enduring Freedom (Horn of Africa); Telic (Iraq); Ellamy (Libya); and Shader (Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant). The British Armed Forces consist of three professional service branches: the Royal Navy and Royal Marines (forming the Naval Service ), the British Army and the Royal Air Force . [ 78 ] The armed forces of the United Kingdom are managed by the Ministry of Defence and controlled by the Defence Council , chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence . The Commander-in-Chief is the British monarch , to whom members of the forces swear an oath of allegiance. [ 79 ] The armed forces are charged with protecting the United Kingdom and its overseas territories, promoting the UK's global security interests and supporting international peacekeeping efforts. They are active and regular participants in NATO (including the Allied Rapid Reaction Corps ), the Five Power Defence Arrangements , RIMPAC and other worldwide coalition operations. Overseas garrisons and facilities are maintained in Ascension Island , Bahrain , Belize , Brunei , Canada , Cyprus , Diego Garcia , the Falkland Islands , Germany , Gibraltar , Kenya , Oman , Qatar and Singapore . [ 80 ] According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute [ 81 ] and the International Institute for Strategic Studies , [ 82 ] the UK had the world's sixth- or fifth-highest military expenditures in 2025. Total defence spending in 2024 was estimated at 2.3 per cent of gross domestic product . [ 83 ] Following the end of the Cold War , defence policy has a stated assumption that "the most demanding operations" will be undertaken as part of a coalition. [ 84 ] Law and criminal justice Main articles: Law of the United Kingdom and Crime in the United Kingdom Further information: English law , Northern Ireland law , and Scots law The Supreme Court is the final court of appeal for England, Wales and Northern Ireland, and for Scottish civil cases. The United Kingdom does not have a single legal system as the 1706 Treaty of Union provided for the continuation of Scotland's separate legal system. [ 85 ] The UK has three distinct systems of law : English law, Northern Ireland law and Scots law. A new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom came into being in October 2009 to replace the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords . [ 86 ] The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council , including the same members as the Supreme Court, is the highest court of appeal for several independent Commonwealth countries, the British Overseas Territories and the Crown Dependencies . [ 87 ] Both English law, which applies in England and Wales, and Northern Ireland law are based on common law (or case law ) principles. [ 88 ] It originated in England in the Middle Ages and is the basis for many legal systems around the world. [ 89 ] The courts of England and Wales are headed by the Senior Courts of England and Wales , consisting of the Court of Appeal , the High Court of Justice for civil cases and the Crown Court for criminal cases. [ 90 ] Scots law is a hybrid system based on common-law and civil-law principles. The chief courts are the Court of Session , for civil cases, [ 91 ] and the High Court of Justiciary , for criminal cases. [ 92 ] The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom serves as the highest court of appeal for civil cases under Scots law. [ 93 ] The criminal justice system has been characterised by low conviction rates and court delays for some crime types. [ 94 ] Crime in England and Wales increased between 1981 and 1995. Since that peak there has been an overall fall of 66% in recorded crime from 1995 to 2015, [ 95 ] according to UK crime statistics . UK labour laws establish employment rights including a minimum wage , a minimum of 28 days annual holiday, parental leave, statutory sick pay and a pension . Same-sex marriage has been legal in England, Scotland, and Wales since 2014, and in Northern Ireland since 2020. [ 96 ] LGBT equality in the United Kingdom is considered advanced by modern standards. [ 97 ] [ 98 ] Since leaving the EU most disputes under UK-EU agreements are addressed through consultation between the parties. If consultation fails to resolve the issue, either party can request arbitration , typically at the PCA in The Hague . [ 99 ] [ 100 ] [ 101 ] The EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement states that the UK and EU have to cooperate and negotiate with each other with 'full mutual respect and good faith', as defined by international law. [ 102 ] Under the Windsor Framework , Northern Ireland matters requiring interpretation of EU law go to the ECJ , though the Stormont Brake can prevent new EU rules from taking effect. ^ The British Monarchy, "What is constitutional monarchy?" Archived 4 June 2019 at the Wayback Machine . Retrieved 17 July 2013; "United Kingdom" Archived 9 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine CIA The World Factbook . Retrieved 17 July 2013 ^ Stepan, Alfred; Linz, Juan J.; Minoves, Juli F. (2014). "Democratic Parliamentary Monarchies" . Journal of Democracy . 25 (2): 35– 36. doi : 10.1353/jod.2014.0032 . ISSN   1086-3214 . S2CID   154555066 . Archived from the original on 31 January 2026 . Retrieved 11 January 2023 . ^ Lewer, Andrew (5 May 2021). "The UK is one of the most centralised advanced democracies – it's time that changed" . New Statesman . Archived from the original on 3 July 2023 . Retrieved 3 July 2023 . ^ "Centralisation Nation: Britain's system of local government and its impact on the national economy" . Centre for Cities . Archived from the original on 28 March 2024 . Retrieved 3 July 2023 . ^ "Parliamentary Sovereignty" . parliament.uk . Archived from the original on 11 August 2021 . Retrieved 19 July 2021 . ^ Polly Botsford (22 September 2022). "Relationship between UK Crown and law in focus as Carolean era begins" . International Bar Association. Archived from the original on 6 May 2023 . Retrieved 4 July 2023 . ^ "Interpretation Act 1978 (c. 30, s. 10)" . The National Archives. Archived from the original on 30 July 2023 . Retrieved 4 July 2023 . ^ a b "Parliament" . parliament.uk . Archived from the original on 18 February 2026 . Retrieved 19 July 2021 . ^ "Royal Assent" . parliament.uk . Archived from the original on 16 July 2021 . Retrieved 19 July 2021 . ^ Carter, Sarah. "A Guide To the UK Legal System" . University of Kent at Canterbury. Archived from the original on 5 May 2012 . Retrieved 16 May 2006 . ^ See R (Miller) v Prime Minister [2019] UKSC 41 (Parliamentary sovereignty), R (UNISON) v Lord Chancellor [2017] UKSC 51 Archived 4 January 2023 at the Wayback Machine , [67] ff (rule of law), R (Animal Defenders International) v Secretary of State for Culture Media and Sport [2008] UKHL 15, [48] (democracy), R v Lyons [2002] UKHL 44 Archived 22 January 2023 at the Wayback Machine , [27] (international law). ^ Robert Blackburn (2022). O. Lepsius; A. Nußberger; C. Schönberger; C. Waldhoff & C. Walter (eds.). "The Constitutional Role and Working of the Monarchy in the United Kingdom" . Jahrbuch des Öffentlichen Rechts der Gegenwart . Neue Folge. 70 . Mohr Siebeck (published 2 June 2022): 181– 201. doi : 10.1628/joer-2022-0009 . S2CID   257830288 . Archived from the original on 19 June 2023 . Retrieved 19 June 2023 . ^ Bagehot, Walter (1867). The English Constitution . London: Chapman and Hall. p. 103. ^ David Torrance (11 January 2023). "The Crown and the Constitution" (PDF) . House of Commons Library. p. 22. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 March 2023 . Retrieved 19 June 2023 . ^ "The Government, Prime Minister and Cabinet" . Public services all in one place . Directgov . Archived from the original on 21 September 2012 . Retrieved 9 March 2015 . ^ Tim Durrant (25 March 2020). "Cabinet" . Institute for Government. Archived from the original on 4 July 2023 . Retrieved 4 July 2023 . ^ "Parliament and Government" . UK Parliament. Archived from the original on 4 July 2023 . Retrieved 4 July 2023 . ^ Vernon Bogdanor (1995). The Monarchy and the Constitution, Chapter 3 – The Basic Constitutional Rules: Influence and the Prerogative . Clarendon Press. ISBN   978-0-19-829334-7 . Retrieved 4 July 2023 . ^ Blick, Andrew; Jones, George (1 January 2012). "The Institution of Prime Minister – History of government" . gov.uk . Archived from the original on 21 July 2021 . Retrieved 19 July 2021 . ^ Brown, Jack (2020). Dale, Iain (ed.). The Prime Ministers . Hodder & Stoughton . p. 303. ISBN   978-1-5293-1214-0 . ^ "Minister for the Civil Service" . gov.uk . Archived from the original on 2 September 2017 . Retrieved 19 July 2021 . ^ Woodcock, Andrew (26 July 2021). "Boris Johnson accused of 'cynical rebranding' after appointing himself 'Minister for the Union' " . Independent . Archived from the original on 27 July 2019 . Retrieved 19 July 2021 . ; "Minister for the Union" . gov.uk . Archived from the original on 19 July 2020 . Retrieved 19 July 2021 . ^ "The Cabinet Manual" (PDF) . gov.uk . October 2011. pp. 7, 21. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 April 2018 . Retrieved 19 July 2021 . ^ Norton, Philip (2020). Governing Britain: Parliament, Ministers and Our Ambiguous Constitution . Manchester University Press . p. 130. ISBN   978-1-5261-4545-1 . ^ Palan, Rolen (2015). "The second British Empire and the re-emergence of global finance" . In Palan, Rolen; Halperin, Sandra (eds.). Legacies of Empire: Imperial Roots of the Contemporary Global Order . Cambridge University Press. p. 48. ISBN   978-1-107-10946-9 . Archived from the original on 2 October 2024 . Retrieved 13 April 2024 . ^ "Democracy Report 2026, Unraveling The Democratic Era?" (PDF) . Retrieved 17 March 2026 . ^ a b "General elections" . parliament.uk . Retrieved 19 July 2021 . ^ Raymond, C (2016). "Why British Politics is Not a Two-Party System" (PDF) . Queen's University Belfast . Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 July 2023 . Retrieved 3 July 2023 . ^ "Sir John Curtice: Election results show politics in the UK has fragmented" . BBC News . 8 May 2026 . Retrieved 9 May 2026 . ^ Hackwood Frederick William: The Story of the Shire, Being the Lore, History and Evolution of English County Institutions (1851) ^ United Nations Economic and Social Council (August 2007). "Ninth UN Conference on the standardization of Geographical Names" (PDF) . UN Statistics Division. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 December 2009 . Retrieved 21 October 2008 . ^ Dewart, Megan (2019). The Scottish Legal System . London: Bloomsbury Academic . p. 57. ISBN   978-1-5265-0633-7 . Archived from the original on 4 July 2023 . Retrieved 4 July 2023 . The laws and legal institutions of Scotland and of England and Wales were not merged by the Union of 1707. Thus, they remain separate 'law areas', with separate court systems (as does Northern Ireland), and it is necessary to distinguish Scots law and English law (and Northern Irish law). ; "The justice system and the constitution" . Courts and Tribunals Judiciary. Archived from the original on 21 May 2023 . Retrieved 13 June 2023 . The United Kingdom has three separate legal systems; one each for England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. This reflects its historical origins and the fact that both Scotland and Ireland, and later Northern Ireland, retained their own legal systems and traditions under the Acts of Union 1707 and 1800. ^ Barlow, I.M. (1991). Metropolitan Government . London: Routledge. ISBN   978-0-415-02099-2 . ^ "Welcome to the national site of the Government Office Network" . Government Offices. Archived from the original on 6 June 2009 . Retrieved 3 July 2008 . ^ "A short history of London government" . Greater London Authority. Archived from the original on 21 April 2008 . Retrieved 4 October 2008 . ^ a b "STV in Scotland: Local Government Elections 2007" (PDF) . Political Studies Association. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 February 2011 . Retrieved 2 August 2008 . ^ a b "Unitary authorities" . Welsh Government. 2014. Archived from the original on 10 March 2015 . Retrieved 9 March 2015 . ^ a b Devenport, Mark (18 November 2005). "NI local government set for shake-up" . BBC News . Archived from the original on 12 December 2008 . Retrieved 15 November 2008 . ^ "Foster announces the future shape of local government" (Press release). Northern Ireland Executive. 13 March 2008. Archived from the original on 25 July 2008 . Retrieved 20 October 2008 . ^ "Devolution of powers to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland" . United Kingdom Government. Archived from the original on 18 July 2013 . Retrieved 17 April 2013 . In a similar way to how the government is formed from members from the two Houses of Parliament, members of the devolved legislatures nominate ministers from amongst themselves to comprise executives, known as the devolved administrations... ; "Country Overviews: United Kingdom" . Transport Research Knowledge Centre. Archived from the original on 4 April 2010 . Retrieved 28 March 2010 . ^ Le Sueur, Andrew; Sunkin, Maurice; Murkens, Jo Eric Khushal (2023). Public Law: Text, Cases, and Materials (5th ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 147. ISBN   978-0-19-287061-2 . Archived from the original on 2 October 2024 . Retrieved 13 April 2024 . ^ "The progress of devolution - Erskine May - UK Parliament" . erskinemay.parliament.uk . Retrieved 1 March 2025 . ^ "David Mundell speech: 20 years of Scottish devolution" . GOV.UK . Retrieved 1 March 2025 . ^ Burrows, N. (1999). "Unfinished Business: The Scotland Act 1998". The Modern Law Review . 62 (2): 241–260 [p. 249]. doi : 10.1111/1468-2230.00203 . The UK Parliament is sovereign and the Scottish Parliament is subordinate. The White Paper had indicated that this was to be the approach taken in the legislation. The Scottish Parliament is not to be seen as a reflection of the settled will of the people of Scotland or of popular sovereignty but as a reflection of its subordination to a higher legal authority. Following the logic of this argument, the power of the Scottish Parliament to legislate can be withdrawn or overridden... ; Elliot, M. (2004). "United Kingdom: Parliamentary sovereignty under pressure" . International Journal of Constitutional Law . 2 (3): 545– 627, 553– 554. doi : 10.1093/icon/2.3.545 . Notwithstanding substantial differences among the schemes, an important common factor is that the UK Parliament has not renounced legislative sovereignty in relation to the three nations concerned. For example, the Scottish Parliament is empowered to enact primary legislation on all matters, save those in relation to which competence is explicitly denied ... but this power to legislate on what may be termed "devolved matters" is concurrent with the Westminster Parliament's general power to legislate for Scotland on any matter at all, including devolved matters ... In theory, therefore, Westminster may legislate on Scottish devolved matters whenever it chooses... ^ "Scotland Act 2016" . Gov.uk . Archived from the original on 28 June 2024 . Retrieved 28 June 2024 . ^ "Wales Act 2017" . Archived from the original on 2 October 2024 . Retrieved 13 July 2024 . ^ Gamble, A. (2006). "The Constitutional Revolution in the United Kingdom". Publius . 36 (1): 19–35 [p. 29]. doi : 10.1093/publius/pjj011 . The British parliament has the power to abolish the Scottish parliament and the Welsh assembly by a simple majority vote in both houses, but since both were sanctioned by referenda, it would be politically difficult to abolish them without the sanction of a further vote by the people. In this way, several of the constitutional measures introduced by the Blair government appear to be entrenched and not subject to a simple exercise of parliamentary sovereignty at Westminster. ^ Meehan, E. (1999). "The Belfast Agreement – Its Distinctiveness and Points of Cross-Fertilization in the UK's Devolution Programme" . Parliamentary Affairs . 52 (1): 19–31 [p. 23]. doi : 10.1093/pa/52.1.19 . [T]he distinctive involvement of two governments in the Northern Irish problem means that Northern Ireland's new arrangements rest upon an intergovernmental agreement. If this can be equated with a treaty, it could be argued that the forthcoming distribution of power between Westminster and Belfast has similarities with divisions specified in the written constitutions of federal states...Although the Agreement makes the general proviso that Westminster's 'powers to make legislation for Northern Ireland' remains 'unaffected', without an explicit categorical reference to reserved matters, it may be more difficult than in Scotland or Wales for devolved powers to be repatriated. The retraction of devolved powers would not merely entail consultation in Northern Ireland backed implicitly by the absolute power of parliamentary sovereignty but also the renegotiation of an intergovernmental agreement. ^ a b [ 58 ] [ 59 ] [ 60 ] [ 61 ] [ 62 ] [ 63 ] [ 64 ] ^ "English devolution" . Institute for Government. 21 June 2024. Archived from the original on 30 August 2024 . Retrieved 30 August 2024 . ^ "Devolution explained" . Local Government Association. Archived from the original on 30 August 2024 . Retrieved 30 August 2024 . ^ "English devolution" . Institute for Government. 6 March 2023. Archived from the original on 2 October 2024 . Retrieved 4 February 2024 . ^ "Combined County Authorities – key differences to Combined Authorities" . Local Government Lawyer . 6 April 2023. Archived from the original on 4 February 2024 . Retrieved 4 February 2024 . ^ a b "Devolved and Reserved Powers" . parliament.scot . Scottish Parliament. Archived from the original on 20 September 2023 . Retrieved 28 December 2023 . ^ "Scotland's Parliament – powers and structures" . BBC News . 8 April 1999. Archived from the original on 18 February 2007 . Retrieved 21 October 2008 . ^ "Devolved and Reserved Matters - Visit & Learn Scottish Parliament" . 22 July 2017. Archived from the original on 22 July 2017 . Retrieved 1 March 2025 . ^ a b "What the Scottish Government does" . Scottish Government. Archived from the original on 8 July 2019 . Retrieved 8 August 2019 . ^ Keating, Michael (2 February 2021). "Taking back control? Brexit and the territorial constitution of the United Kingdom". Journal of European Public Policy . 28 (4). Abingdon: Taylor & Francis : 6– 7. doi : 10.1080/13501763.2021.1876156 . hdl : 1814/70296 . S2CID   234066376 . The UK Internal Market Act gives ministers sweeping powers to enforce mutual recognition and non-discrimination across the four jurisdictions. Existing differences and some social and health matters are exempted but these are much less extensive than the exemptions permitted under the EU Internal Market provisions. Only after an amendment in the House of Lords, the Bill was amended to provide a weak and non-binding consent mechanism for amendments (equivalent to the Sewel Convention) to the list of exemptions. The result is that, while the devolved governments retain regulatory competences, these are undermined by the fact that goods and services originating in, or imported into, England can be marketed anywhere. ^ Kenny, Michael ; McEwen, Nicola (1 March 2021). "Intergovernmental Relations and the Crisis of the Union" . Political Insight . 12 (1). SAGE Publishing : 12– 15. doi : 10.1177/20419058211000996 . S2CID   232050477 . That phase of joint working was significantly damaged by the UK Internal Market Act, pushed through by the Johnson government in December 2020...the Act diminishes the authority of the devolved institutions, and was vehemently opposed by them. ^ Wolffe, W James (7 April 2021). "Devolution and the Statute Book" . Statute Law Review . Oxford: Oxford University Press . doi : 10.1093/slr/hmab003 . Archived from the original on 21 April 2021 . Retrieved 18 April 2021 . the Internal Market Bill—a Bill that contains provisions which, if enacted, would significantly constrain, both legally and as a matter of practicality, the exercise by the devolved legislatures of their legislative competence; provisions that would be significantly more restrictive of the powers of the Scottish Parliament than either EU law or Articles 4 and 6 of the Acts of the Union...The UK Parliament passed the European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020 and the Internal Market Act 2020 notwithstanding that, in each case, all three of the devolved legislatures had withheld consent. ^ Wincott, Daniel ; Murray, C. R. G.; Davies, Gregory (17 May 2021). "The Anglo-British imaginary and the rebuilding of the UK's territorial constitution after Brexit: unitary state or union state?" . Territory, Politics, Governance . 10 (5). Abingdon/Brighton: Taylor & Francis ; Regional Studies Association : 696– 713. doi : 10.1080/21622671.2021.1921613 . Taken as a whole, the Internal Market Act imposes greater restrictions upon the competences of the devolved institutions than the provisions of the EU Single Market which it replaced, in spite of pledges to use common frameworks to address these issues. Lord Hope , responsible for many of the leading judgments relating to the first two decades of devolution, regarded the legislation's terms as deliberately confrontational: 'this Parliament can do what it likes, but a different approach is essential if the union is to hold together'. ^ Dougan, Michael ; Hayward, Katy ; Hunt, Jo; McEwen, Nicola ; McHarg, Aileen; Wincott, Daniel (2020). UK and the Internal Market, Devolution and the Union . Centre on Constitutional Change (Report). University of Edinburgh ; University of Aberdeen . pp.  2– 3. Archived from the original on 18 October 2020 . Retrieved 16 October 2020 . ^ Dougan, Michael (2020). Briefing Paper. United Kingdom Internal Market Bill: Implications for Devolution (PDF) (Report). Liverpool: University of Liverpool . pp.  4– 5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 October 2020 . Retrieved 15 October 2020 . ^ Dougan, Michael ; Hunt, Jo; McEwen, Nicola ; McHarg, Aileen (2022). "Sleeping with an Elephant: Devolution and the United Kingdom Internal Market Act 2020" . Law Quarterly Review . London: Sweet & Maxwell . ISSN   0023-933X . SSRN   4018581 . Archived from the original on 2 August 2022 . Retrieved 4 March 2022 – via Durham Research Online . The Act has restrictive – and potentially damaging – consequences for the regulatory capacity of the devolved legislatures...This was not the first time since the Brexit referendum that the Convention had been set aside, but it was especially notable given that the primary purpose of the legislation was to constrain the capacity of the devolved institutions to use their regulatory autonomy...in practice, it constrains the ability of the devolved institutions to make effective regulatory choices for their territories in ways that do not apply to the choices made by the UK government and parliament for the English market. ^ "Humza Yousaf's precarious position puts the SNP – and Scotland – at a crossroads" . Institute for Government . 26 April 2024. Archived from the original on 26 April 2024 . Retrieved 26 April 2024 . ^ "Structure and powers of the Assembly" . BBC News . 9 April 1999. Archived from the original on 7 February 2004 . Retrieved 21 October 2008 . ^ "Good Friday Agreement: What is it?" . BBC News . 3 April 2023. Archived from the original on 15 May 2024 . Retrieved 11 April 2024 . ^ "Devolution of powers to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland" . GOV.UK . 8 May 2019. Archived from the original on 7 March 2023 . Retrieved 11 June 2024 . ^ "Your Executive" . Northern Ireland Executive. 25 September 2015. Archived from the original on 21 August 2016 . Retrieved 14 August 2016 . ^ "Stormont: Why were NI leaders given unequal job titles?" . BBC News . 15 May 2022. Archived from the original on 2 February 2024 . Retrieved 2 February 2024 . ^ "Northern Ireland Executive: Ministerial Code" . 28 September 2015. Archived from the original on 2 February 2024 . Retrieved 2 February 2024 . ^ May, Theresa (29 March 2017). "Prime Minister's letter to Donald Tusk triggering Article 50" . Archived from the original on 5 June 2017 . Retrieved 19 June 2017 – via Gov.uk. ^ Paul, T.V.; Wirtz, James; Fortmann, Michel (2004). Balance of Power: Theory and Practice in the 21st century . Stanford University Press. p. 59. ISBN   978-0-8047-5017-2 . ^ "United Kingdom country profile" . BBC News . 10 May 2012. Archived from the original on 3 January 2023 . Retrieved 6 July 2025 . ^ Swaine, Jon (13 January 2009). "Barack Obama presidency will strengthen special relationship, says Gordon Brown" . The Telegraph . London . Archived from the original on 4 July 2020 . Retrieved 30 May 2011 . ^ Kirchner, Emil Joseph; Sperling, James (2007). Global Security Governance: Competing Perceptions of Security in the 21st century (illustrated ed.). London: Routledge . p. 100. ISBN   978-0-415-39162-7 . ^ The Committee Office, House of Commons (19 February 2009). "DFID's expenditure on development assistance" . UK Parliament. Archived from the original on 12 January 2013 . Retrieved 28 April 2013 . ^ "Ministry of Defence" . Ministry of Defence. Archived from the original on 19 February 2012 . Retrieved 21 February 2012 . ^ "Speaker addresses Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II" . UK Parliament. 30 March 2012. Archived from the original on 1 May 2013 . Retrieved 28 April 2013 . ^ "House of Commons Hansard" . UK Parliament. Archived from the original on 9 March 2009 . Retrieved 23 October 2008 . ; "House of Commons Hansard Written Answers for 17 Jun 2013 (pt 0002)" . Publications.parliament.uk. Archived from the original on 14 February 2015 . Retrieved 4 March 2015 . ^ "Trends in Military Expenditure 2025" (PDF) . Stockholm International Peace Research Institute . April 2026 . Retrieved 31 May 2026 . ^ "The Military Balance 2026: Global defence spending" . IISS . Retrieved 31 May 2026 . ^ "Rishi Sunak vows to boost UK defence spending to 2.5% of GDP by 2030" . BBC News. 24 April 2024. Archived from the original on 23 April 2024 . Retrieved 24 April 2024 . ^ UK 2005: The Official Yearbook of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland . Office for National Statistics. p. 89. ^ Cite error: The named reference Acts of Union 1707 was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ "UK Supreme Court judges sworn in" . BBC News . 1 October 2009. Archived from the original on 7 February 2020 . Retrieved 6 October 2009 . ; "Constitutional reform: A Supreme Court for the United Kingdom" (PDF) . Department for Constitutional Affairs. July 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 January 2009 . Retrieved 13 May 2013 . ^ "Role of the JCPC" . Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Archived from the original on 14 January 2014 . Retrieved 28 April 2013 . ^ Bainham, Andrew (1998). The international survey of family law: 1996 . The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. p. 298. ISBN   978-90-411-0573-8 . Archived from the original on 28 March 2024 . Retrieved 29 September 2020 . ^ "Common Law" . Britannica. 19 May 2024. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021 . Retrieved 27 May 2024 . ^ "The Australian courts and comparative law" . Australian Law Postgraduate Network. Archived from the original on 14 April 2013 . Retrieved 9 March 2015 . ^ "Court of Session – Introduction" . Scottish Courts. Archived from the original on 31 July 2008 . Retrieved 8 March 2015 . ^ "High Court of Justiciary – Introduction" . Scottish Courts. Archived from the original on 12 September 2008 . Retrieved 9 March 2015 . ^ "House of Lords – Practice Directions and Standing Orders Applicable to Civil Appeals" . UK Parliament. Archived from the original on 6 December 2013 . Retrieved 8 March 2015 . ^ Lovett, Jo; Hales, Gavin; Kelly, Liz; Khan, Aneela; Hardiman, Margaret; Trott, Louise (2022). "What can We Learn from Police Data About Timeliness in Rape and Serious Sexual Offence Investigations in England and Wales?" . International Criminology . 2 (3): 286– 298. doi : 10.1007/s43576-022-00069-8 . ISSN   2662-9976 . PMC   9527390 . ^ "Crime in England and Wales, Year Ending June 2015" (PDF) . UK Government Web Archive . Office for National Statistics. Archived from the original on 16 March 2023 . Retrieved 16 March 2023 . {{ cite web }} : CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( link ) ^ Wratten, Marcus (3 July 2023). "Tom Allen to host vital new BBC show marking 10th anniversary of same-sex marriage" . PinkNews . Archived from the original on 2 September 2023 . Retrieved 2 September 2023 . ^ "The 203 Worst (& Safest) Countries for LGBTQ+ Travel in 2023" . Asher & Lyric . 5 June 2023. Archived from the original on 10 September 2021 . Retrieved 20 August 2023 . ^ R. Flores, Andrew. "Social Acceptance of LGBTI People in 175 Countries and Locations" . Williams Institute . Archived from the original on 13 September 2023 . Retrieved 11 September 2023 . ^ Cite error: The named reference commission.europa.eu was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ "Disputes under the Trade and Cooperation Agreement" . Institute for Government. November 2021 . Retrieved 26 January 2025 . ^ "Sandeel fishing ban to remain in place" . BBC . 2 May 2025. Archived from the original on 4 May 2025 . Retrieved 4 May 2025 . ^ "Good Faith in Public Law" . ox.ac.uk . 20 January 2022. Archived from the original on 13 May 2025 . Retrieved 13 May 2025 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). Read more on Wikipedia →

Economy Main article: Economy of the United Kingdom Further information: Economy of England , Economy of Scotland , Economy of Northern Ireland , and Economy of Wales City of London skyline from London City Hall . London is Europe's largest financial centre. [ 1 ] The United Kingdom has a highly developed social market economy . [ 2 ] [ 3 ] With an estimated nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of £2.819 trillion in 2025, [ 4 ] it is the fifth-largest national economy in the world and the second-largest in Europe. Its currency, the pound sterling , is the fourth-most-traded currency in the foreign exchange market and the world's fourth-largest reserve currency , after the United States dollar , the euro and the yen . [ 5 ] The pound sterling maintains its high nominal value through both its long history of stability and by never undergoing formal redenomination . Since 2022 the UK has been both the world's fourth-largest exporter [ 6 ] and fourth-largest importer [ 7 ] of goods and services. Despite having one of the highest levels of income inequality in the OECD , [ 8 ] [ 9 ] the UK has a very high HDI ranking, including when adjusted for inequality . As of 2025 the UK unemployment rate is 4.7% [ 10 ] and the annual real GDP per head growth was 1.1%. [ 11 ] HM Treasury , led by the Chancellor of the Exchequer , is responsible for developing and executing the government's public finance and economic policy . The Department for Business and Trade is responsible for business, international trade, and enterprise. The Bank of England is the UK's central bank and responsible for issuing notes and coins in the pound sterling. Banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland retain the right to issue their own notes, subject to retaining enough Bank of England notes in reserve to cover their issue. Industries and services The Bank of England is the central bank of the United Kingdom and the model on which most modern central banks have been based. Concorde was a supersonic airliner that reduced transatlantic flight time from 8 hours to 3.5 hours. [ 12 ] The service sector made up around 80 per cent of the UK's GVA in 2023. [ 13 ] As of 2023 it is the world's second-largest exporter of services [ 14 ] and in 2024 was the world's largest net exporter of financial services . [ 15 ] London is the world capital for foreign exchange trading, with a market share of 37.8 per cent in 2022 of the global turnover. [ 16 ] It is the largest urban economy in Europe [ 17 ] and, alongside New York , the city in the world most integrated with the global economy . [ 18 ] London is also one of the world's leading financial centres, ranking second in the 2025 Global Financial Centres Index . [ 19 ] Edinburgh , the UK's second-largest financial centre, ranks 29th in the world in the same index. [ 19 ] The UK's manufacturing sector in 2024 was the world's 10th-largest and Europe's fourth-largest by value output. [ 20 ] At the end of 2024 manufacturing in the United Kingdom accounted for 8 per cent of the workforce and 8.6 per cent of national economic output. [ 21 ] As reported in 2017 the East Midlands and West Midlands (at 12.6 and 11.8 per cent respectively) were the regions with the highest proportion of employees in manufacturing. London's manufacturing sector had the lowest at 2.8 per cent. [ 22 ] The country's tourism sector is important to the British economy; [ 23 ] The creative industries accounted for 5.9 per cent of the UK's GVA in 2019, [ 24 ] and contributed £111 billion to the UK economy in 2018. [ 25 ] Lloyd's of London , located in London, is the world's largest insurance and reinsurance market. [ 26 ] WPP plc is one of the world's biggest advertising companies and also based in London. [ 27 ] The UK is one of Europe's leading retail markets and its largest e-commerce market. [ 28 ] With consumption expenditures of over US$2 trillion in 2023, it has the second-largest consumer market in Europe. [ 29 ] John Lewis is the UK's largest employee-owned business. [ 30 ] The British automotive industry generates £47 billion of exports (12 per cent of the UK's total exports of goods). [ 31 ] In 2024 the UK produced 779,584 passenger vehicles and 125,649 commercial vehicles; 8 out of 10 cars produced in the UK are exported overseas. [ 31 ] Britain is known for iconic cars like Mini and Jaguar , [ 32 ] as well as luxury cars such as Rolls-Royce , Bentley and Range Rover . The UK is a major centre for engine manufacturing: 1.59 million engines were produced in 2024. [ 31 ] It was the world's third-largest exporter of engines by value in 2023. [ 33 ] The UK motorsport industry has an annual turnover of around £10 billion. [ 34 ] Seven of the eleven Formula One teams are based in the UK, with their technology being used in supercars and hypercars from McLaren , Aston Martin and Lotus . [ a ] The aerospace industry of the UK is the second-largest in the world [ 35 ] and has an annual turnover of around £30 billion. [ 36 ] The UK space industry was worth £17.5 billion in 2020/21 and employed around 48,800 people. [ 37 ] [ 38 ] The UK Space Agency has stated in 2023 that it is investing £1.6 billion in space-related projects. [ 39 ] The British agriculture industry is intensive, highly mechanised and efficient by European standards, producing approximately 60 per cent of the country's overall food requirements and 73 per cent of its indigenous food needs, utilising around 0.9 per cent of the labour force (292,000 workers). [ 40 ] Around two-thirds of production is devoted to livestock and one-third to arable crops . The UK retains a significant though much reduced fishing industry, with at least 49 per cent of UK fish sustainably caught in 2020. [ 41 ] The UK marine natural capital assets were estimated to have a value of £211 billion in 2021. [ 42 ] It is rich in a variety of other natural resources including coal, petroleum , natural gas , tin, limestone, iron ore, salt, clay, chalk, gypsum , lead, and silica and has an abundance of arable land. [ 43 ] Science and technology Main articles: Science and technology in the United Kingdom and Telecommunications in the United Kingdom The Cambridge Cluster is the most intensive research cluster for science and technology in the world. [ 44 ] England and Scotland were leading centres of the Scientific Revolution from the 17th century. [ 45 ] The United Kingdom led the Industrial Revolution from the 18th century, and has continued to produce scientists and engineers credited with important advances . [ 46 ] Major theorists from the 17th and 18th centuries include Isaac Newton , whose laws of motion and illumination of gravity have been seen as a keystone of modern science; [ 47 ] from the 19th century Charles Darwin , whose theory of evolution by natural selection was fundamental to the development of modern biology, and James Clerk Maxwell , who formulated classical electromagnetic theory ; and more recently Stephen Hawking , who advanced major theories in the fields of cosmology , quantum gravity and the investigation of black holes . [ 48 ] The Department for Science, Innovation and Technology (DSIT) is responsible for helping to develop and manage the UK's scientific, research, and technological outputs. Scientific research and development remains important in British universities , with many establishing science parks to facilitate production and co-operation with industry. [ 49 ] In 2022, the UK produced 6.0 per cent of the world's scientific research papers and had an 8.8 per cent share of scientific citations, the fourth and third highest among G7 countries and Brazil, China, India, Russia, and South Korea. The UK ranked 1st among these countries for Field-Weighted Citation Impact. [ 50 ] Scientific journals produced in the UK include publications by the Royal Society , Nature , the British Medical Journal and The Lancet . [ 51 ] By 2024 the UK tech sector reached a value of US$1.2 trillion surpassing the combined values of the French and German sectors. [ 52 ] Cambridge was named the number one university in the world for producing successful technology founders. [ 53 ] The UK's artificial intelligence industry is the largest in Europe by value [ 54 ] and the country ranked fifth globally in a 2026 report on artificial intelligence development by Stanford University . [ 55 ] The UK ranked 6th in the 2025 Global Innovation Index . [ 56 ] [ 57 ] Transport Main article: Transport in the United Kingdom Further information: Transport in England , Transport in Scotland , Transport in Wales , and Transport in Northern Ireland A high-speed East Coast Main Line train in Northumberland , England A plane taking off from London City Airport . London's airports make it the city with the busiest airport system in the world. In the UK, all traffic drives on the left , with distance and speed being measured in miles, yards and miles per hour (mph). All vehicles manufactured for use in the UK have the steering wheel situated on the right side of the vehicle. A radial road network totals 29,145 miles (46,904 km) of main roads, 2,173 miles (3,497 km) of motorways and 213,750 miles (344,000 km) of paved roads. [ 58 ] The M25 , encircling London, is the largest and busiest bypass in the world. [ 59 ] In 2024 there were 41.7 million licensed vehicles in the UK. [ 60 ] The UK has an extensive railway network of 10,072 miles (16,209 km). In Great Britain, the British Rail network was privatised between 1994 and 1997, followed by a rapid rise in passengers. Great British Railways is a planned state-owned public body that will oversee rail transport in Great Britain . The UK was ranked eighth amongst national European rail systems in the 2017 European Railway Performance Index assessing intensity of use, quality of service and safety. [ 61 ] A train runs directly from London to Paris . [ 62 ] Called the Eurostar , it travels through the Channel Tunnel under the English Channel . At 23.5 miles long, it is the world's longest undersea tunnel. [ 63 ] There is also a car service through the tunnel to France called LeShuttle . The Elizabeth line , a rail link running between East and West London , was named in honour of Queen Elizabeth II in 2016 and opened in 2022. [ 64 ] [ 65 ] Another major infrastructure project is High Speed 2 (HS2), a high-speed railway under construction since 2019. It will link London with Birmingham , with the potential to extend further north and capable of speeds of up to 225 mph. [ 66 ] [ 67 ] In 2023 there were 4 billion bus journeys in the UK, 1.8 billion of which were in London. [ 68 ] The red double-decker bus has entered popular culture as an internationally recognised icon of London and England. [ 69 ] The London bus network is extensive, with over 6,800 scheduled services every weekday carrying about 6 million passengers on over 700 different routes, making it one of the most extensive bus systems in the world and the largest in Europe. [ 70 ] During 2024 British airports handled nearly 292.5 million passengers. [ 71 ] In that period the three largest airports were London Heathrow Airport (83.9 million passengers), Gatwick Airport (43.2 million passengers) and Manchester Airport (30.8 million passengers). [ 71 ] London Heathrow Airport, located 15 miles (24 km) west of the capital, is the world's second-busiest airport by international passenger traffic and has the most international passenger traffic of any airport in the world; [ 72 ] it is the hub for the UK flag carrier British Airways , as well as Virgin Atlantic . [ 73 ] During 2023, 18.3 million passengers travelled internationally by rail and 18.1 million by sea. [ 74 ] Energy Main article: Energy in the United Kingdom Further information: Energy in England , Energy in Scotland , Energy in Wales , and Energy in Northern Ireland In 2021 the UK was the world's 14th-largest consumer and 22nd-largest producer of energy . [ 75 ] It is home to many large energy companies , including two of the six major oil and gas companies –  BP and Shell . [ 76 ] Wind turbines overlooking Ardrossan in Scotland. The UK is a major producer of wind energy in Europe. [ 77 ] Renewable electricity sources provided 51 per cent of the electricity generated in the UK in 2024. Wind power was the largest source of electricity in 2024, generating 30 per cent of the UK's total electricity. [ 78 ] The UK has the largest offshore wind farm in the world, which is located off the coast of Yorkshire . [ 79 ] In 2023 the UK had nine nuclear reactors generating about 15 per cent of the UK's electricity. [ 80 ] There are two reactors under construction and more planned. [ 81 ] [ 82 ] In the late 1990s nuclear power plants contributed around 25 per cent of the total annual electricity generation in the UK, but this has gradually declined as old plants have been shut down. The UK government is investing in small modular reactors that operate via nuclear fission , as well as in research and development towards commercial fusion reactors . To that end the government entered into a partnership with the US in late 2023 to collaborate on fusion technology, with "a commercial grid-ready fusion reactor by 2040" stated as a goal. [ 83 ] At the end of 2023 it was estimated that there were 1.1 billion barrels of oil equivalent of "proven" and "probable" gas reserves and 2.3 billion boe of "proven" and "probable" oil reserves offshore, reducing reliance on imports for energy security and transitioning to renewables. [ 84 ] Emissions from UK gas production are roughly four times lower than imported liquefied natural gas (LNG), according to the UK's oil and gas regulator . [ 85 ] In September 2024 the last coal power station was closed, making coal no longer a power source in the UK. [ 78 ] The UK currently has no fracking (hydraulic fracturing) for shale gas despite a large supply, due to environmental concerns. [ 86 ] Water supply and sanitation Main article: Water supply and sanitation in the United Kingdom Access to improved water supply and sanitation in the UK is universal. It was estimated that 96 per cent of households were connected to the sewer network in 2022. [ 87 ] According to the Environment Agency , total water abstraction for public water supply in the UK was 16,406 megalitres per day in 2007. [ 88 ] In England and Wales, water and sewerage services are provided by 10 private regional water and sewerage companies and 13 mostly smaller private "water only" companies. In Scotland, said services are provided by a single public company, Scottish Water . In Northern Ireland, they are also provided by a single public entity, Northern Ireland Water . [ 89 ] ^ Yanatma, Servet (16 March 2024). "Europe's top financial centres: Where's best to do business?" . Euronews . Retrieved 16 August 2025 . While the US dominates the upper end of the list, with New York taking the number one spot, London continues to lead in Europe. ^ Thane, Pat (2019). "The Origins of the British Welfare State" . The Journal of Interdisciplinary History . 50 (3): 427– 433. doi : 10.1162/jinh_a_01448 . S2CID   208223636 . ^ Griffiths, Alan; Wall, Stuart (16 July 2011). "Applied Economics" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 June 2013 . Retrieved 25 September 2014 . ^ "Data Explorer" . data.imf.org . Retrieved 7 May 2026 . ^ "World Currency Composition of Official Foreign Exchange Reserves" . IMF Data . Archived from the original on 12 May 2016 . Retrieved 10 October 2021 . ^ "Exports of goods and services (BoP, current US$)" . World Bank . Retrieved 22 September 2025 . ^ "Imports of goods and services (current US$)" . World Bank . Archived from the original on 13 September 2025 . Retrieved 22 September 2025 . ^ Francis-Devine, Brigid. "House of Commons Research Briefing on Income inequality in the UK" . UK Parliament . Archived from the original on 10 February 2022 . Retrieved 1 July 2023 . ^ "Inequality – Income inequality – OECD Data" . theOECD . Archived from the original on 29 June 2023 . Retrieved 3 July 2023 . ^ Labiak, Mitchell; Smith, Oliver (17 July 2025). "UK jobs market weakens as unemployment rate rises" . www.bbc.com . Archived from the original on 15 September 2025 . Retrieved 25 September 2025 . ^ "GDP quarterly national accounts, UK" . Office for National Statistics . 2026 . Retrieved 24 April 2026 . ^ "Celebrating Concorde" . Archived from the original on 17 March 2023 . Retrieved 30 March 2023 . ^ Hutton, Georgina (3 October 2024). "Industries in the UK" . UK Parliament: House of Commons Library . Archived from the original on 7 October 2021 . Retrieved 19 May 2025 . ^ "Service exports (BoP, current US$)" . World Bank Open Data . Archived from the original on 17 March 2023 . Retrieved 19 May 2025 . ^ "UK leads world in financial services trade surplus" . TheCityUK . 15 January 2025 . Retrieved 2 June 2025 . ^ "BIS Triennial Survey of Foreign Exchange and Over-The-Counter Interest Rate Derivatives Markets in April 2025 – UK Data" . Bank of England. 30 September 2025 . Retrieved 7 December 2025 . ^ Florida, Richard (16 March 2017). "The Economic Power of Cities Compared to Nations" . Bloomberg . Archived from the original on 8 March 2024 . Retrieved 22 February 2024 . ^ "World Cities 2024" . GaWC . Archived from the original on 3 July 2025 . Retrieved 21 September 2025 . ^ a b "GFCI 36 Rank - Long Finance" . www.longfinance.net . Archived from the original on 25 September 2024 . Retrieved 19 May 2025 . ^ "World Bank Open Data" . World Bank Open Data . Archived from the original on 7 January 2020 . Retrieved 5 August 2025 . ^ "Manufacturing industries: Economic indicators" . House of Commons Library . 22 May 2025 . Retrieved 1 June 2025 . ^ Hennik Research. Annual Manufacturing Report: 2017 (Dec. 2016) Archived 31 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine ^ Chan, Kelvin (25 April 2023). "King Charles' coronation is bringing millions of tourists and a cash infusion to London but it probably won't save the British economy" . fortune.com . The Associated Press. Archived from the original on 2 May 2023 . Retrieved 9 May 2023 . ^ "DCMS Economic Estimates 2019 (provisional): Gross Value Added" . gov.uk . Archived from the original on 31 January 2023 . Retrieved 31 January 2023 . ^ "UK's Creative Industries contributes almost £13 million to the UK economy every hour" . UK Government. 2020. Archived from the original on 21 February 2023 . Retrieved 21 February 2023 . ^ "Lloyd's of London – value proposition" . Lloyd's of London . Archived from the original on 27 February 2023. ^ "Rankings 2025 - Creative 100" . WARC . Archived from the original on 12 June 2025 . Retrieved 12 June 2025 . ^ "Retail" . great.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 18 January 2024 . Retrieved 18 January 2024 . ^ "Households and NPISHs Final consumption expenditure (current US$)" . World Bank Group . Archived from the original on 12 June 2018 . Retrieved 17 August 2024 . ^ "Employee owned businesses - What the evidence tells us" . Archived from the original on 2 December 2023 . Retrieved 18 January 2024 . ^ a b c "SMMT Motor Industry Facts 2025" . SMMT . 15 May 2025. Archived from the original on 26 May 2025 . Retrieved 26 May 2025 . ^ "Best British cars: Top 50 all-time greatest British-built cars revealed - page 2" . Auto Express . 19 November 2020. Archived from the original on 16 March 2024 . Retrieved 9 March 2024 . ^ "Combustion Engines" . OEC - The Observatory of Economic Complexity . Archived from the original on 26 May 2025 . Retrieved 26 May 2025 . ^ "UK motorsport industry in pole position for F1's 70th anniversary" . UK Government. 2020. Archived from the original on 19 February 2023 . Retrieved 19 February 2023 . ^ "United Kingdom - Country Commercial Guide: Aerospace and Defense" . International Trade Administration . 3 November 2023. Archived from the original on 12 June 2023 . Retrieved 17 December 2024 . ^ Tovey, Alan (29 June 2016). "Britain's aerospace sector soars amid fears Brexit could clip its wings" . The Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. ^ "UK space sector income reaches £17.5 billion as jobs and services grow" . UKspace . 27 March 2023. ^ "UK space sector income reaches £17.5 billion as jobs and services grow" . gov.uk . 29 March 2023 . Retrieved 10 August 2025 . ^ "New funding to support space exploration using Moon resources and nuclear power" . Archived from the original on 11 March 2023 . Retrieved 11 March 2023 . ^ "UK Food Security Index 2024" . Department for the Environment Food & Rural Affairs. Archived from the original on 18 May 2024 . Retrieved 19 May 2024 . ; "Agricultural workforce in England at 1 June 2023" . Department for the Environment Food & Rural Affairs. Archived from the original on 19 May 2024 . Retrieved 19 May 2024 . ^ "Sustainable fisheries: fish stocks harvested within safe limits" . JNCC . Retrieved 14 December 2024 . ^ "Marine accounts, natural capital, UK: 2021" . ONS . 6 April 2021. Archived from the original on 21 May 2025 . Retrieved 21 May 2025 . ^ "Coal" . BGS Minerals UK . Archived from the original on 26 April 2009 . Retrieved 7 July 2015 . ^ WIPO (2022). Global Innovation Index 2022, 15th Edition . World Intellectual Property Organization. doi : 10.34667/tind.46596 . ISBN   978-92-805-3432-0 . Archived from the original on 3 December 2022 . Retrieved 16 November 2022 . ; "Global Innovation Index 2021" . World Intellectual Property Organization . United Nations . Archived from the original on 5 March 2022 . Retrieved 5 March 2022 . ; "Release of the Global Innovation Index 2020: Who Will Finance Innovation?" . World Intellectual Property Organization . Archived from the original on 3 June 2021 . Retrieved 2 September 2021 . ; "Global Innovation Index 2019" . World Intellectual Property Organization . Archived from the original on 2 September 2021 . Retrieved 2 September 2021 . ; "RTD – Item" . ec.europa.eu . Archived from the original on 2 September 2021 . Retrieved 2 September 2021 . ^ Gascoin, J. "A reappraisal of the role of the universities in the Scientific Revolution", in Lindberg, David C. and Westman, Robert S., eds (1990), Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution . Cambridge University Press. p. 248. ISBN   978-0-521-34804-1 . ^ Reynolds, E.E.; Brasher, N.H. (1966). Britain in the Twentieth Century, 1900–1964 . Cambridge University Press. p. 336. OCLC   474197910 ^ Burtt, E.A. (2003) 1924. The Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Science Archived 26 March 2023 at the Wayback Machine . Mineola, NY: Courier Dover. p. 207. ISBN   978-0-486-42551-1 . ^ Hatt, C. (2006). Scientists and Their Discoveries Archived 26 March 2023 at the Wayback Machine . London: Evans Brothers. pp. 16, 30 and 46. ISBN   978-0-237-53195-9 . ^ Castells, M.; Hall, P.; Hall, P.G. (2004). Technopoles of the World: the Making of Twenty-First-Century Industrial Complexes . London: Routledge. pp. 98–100. ISBN   978-0-415-10015-1 . ^ "International comparison of the UK research base, 2025" . GOV.UK . Retrieved 7 December 2025 . ^ McCook, Alison (2006). "Is peer review broken?" . The Scientist . 20 (2): 26. Archived from the original on 16 August 2011 . Retrieved 22 June 2011 . ^ Greenberg, Elizabeth (14 January 2025). "UK Innovation Economy Worth a Combined $1.2 trillion" . Digit News . Retrieved 26 May 2026 . Valued at $1.2 trillion collectively, the UK innovation ecosystem is worth more than the French and German ecosystems combined. ^ "UK tech sector retains #1 spot in Europe and #3 in world as sector resilience brings continued growth" . gov.uk . 21 December 2022. Archived from the original on 27 May 2025 . Retrieved 27 May 2025 . ^ "UK AI sector most valuable in Europe, new report reveals" . Holyrood . 11 June 2024 . Retrieved 20 July 2025 . ^ "Which countries are leading in AI? | Stanford HAI" . hai.stanford.edu . Retrieved 9 May 2026 . ^ "GII Innovation Ecosystems & Data Explorer 2025" . WIPO . Retrieved 16 October 2025 . ^ Dutta, Soumitra; Lanvin, Bruno (2025). Global Innovation Index 2025: Innovation at a Crossroads . World Intellectual Property Organization . p. 19. doi : 10.34667/tind.58864 . ISBN   978-92-805-3797-0 . Retrieved 17 October 2025 . ^ Cite error: The named reference factbook was invoked but never defined (see the help page ). ^ Moran, Joe (16 November 2005). Reading the Everyday . Routledge. p.  95 . ISBN   978-1-134-37216-4 . ^ "General facts and figures about roads and road use" . Archived from the original on 18 May 2025 . Retrieved 31 May 2025 . ^ Sylvain Duranton; Agnès Audier; Joël Hazan; Mads Peter Langhorn; Vincent Gauche (18 April 2017). "The 2017 European Railway Performance Index" . Boston Consulting Group. Archived from the original on 31 May 2020 . Retrieved 4 February 2019 . ^ "London to Paris Trains" . Eurostar. Archived from the original on 11 May 2024 . Retrieved 11 May 2024 . ^ "Channel Tunnel, Tunnel, Europe" . Britannica. 10 May 2024 . Retrieved 11 May 2024 . ^ "Crossrail's giant tunnelling machines unveiled" . BBC News . 2 January 2012. Archived from the original on 10 April 2016 . Retrieved 20 June 2018 . ; Leftly, Mark (29 August 2010). "Crossrail delayed to save £1bn" . Independent . London. Archived from the original on 16 November 2020 . Retrieved 22 August 2017 . ^ "Crossrail to become the Elizabeth line in honour of Her Majesty the Queen" . Transport for London . Archived from the original on 25 February 2023. ^ "What is HS2" . HS2 . Archived from the original on 21 June 2022 . Retrieved 22 June 2022 . ^ "HS2 Trains" . HS2 . Archived from the original on 24 February 2023 . Retrieved 24 February 2023 . ^ "Transport Statistics Great Britain: 2023 Domestic Travel" . gov.uk . 19 December 2024 . Retrieved 14 March 2025 . ^ "Our Collection" . icons.org.uk . Retrieved 16 August 2014 . ^ London Buses , Transport for London. Accessed 10 May 2007. ^ a b "Size of Reporting Airports 2024" . Civil Aviation Authority . Retrieved 17 January 2025 . ^ "Heathrow 'needs a third runway' " . BBC News . 25 June 2008 . Retrieved 17 October 2008 . ; "Statistics: Top 30 World airports" (PDF) (Press release). Airports Council International. July 2008 . Retrieved 15 October 2008 . ^ "BMI being taken over by Lufthansa" . BBC News . 29 October 2008 . Retrieved 23 December 2009 . ^ "Transport Statistics Great Britain: 2023 International Travel" . gov.uk . 19 December 2024 . Retrieved 4 March 2025 . ^ "United Kingdom Energy Profile" . U.S. Energy Information Administration. Archived from the original on 28 February 2023 . Retrieved 28 February 2023 . ^ Mason, Rowena (24 October 2009). "Let the battle begin over black gold" . The Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022 . Retrieved 26 November 2010 . ; Heath, Michael (26 November 2010). "RBA Says Currency Containing Prices, Rate Level 'Appropriate' in Near Term" . Bloomberg . New York . Retrieved 26 November 2010 . ^ " 'Success story': Which European countries are leading the way on wind?" . Euronews . 13 September 2023 . Retrieved 15 August 2025 . ^ a b Britain's Electricity Explained: 2024 Review (Report). NESO. Archived from the original on 26 January 2025 . Retrieved 26 January 2025 . ^ Wind energy in the UK: June 2021 . UK Government (Report). 14 June 2021 . Retrieved 8 May 2023 . ^ "Nuclear Power in the United Kingdom" . World Nuclear Association. Archived from the original on 28 February 2023 . Retrieved 28 February 2023 . ^ "Nuclear Power in the United Kingdom" . World Nuclear Association. April 2013. Archived from the original on 14 February 2013 . Retrieved 9 April 2013 . ^ "Nuclear energy: What you need to know" . UK Government. Archived from the original on 28 February 2023 . Retrieved 28 February 2023 . ^ Belderbos, Harriet (7 March 2024). "UKAEA implementing the UK's fusion energy strategy" . Open Access Government . Retrieved 27 May 2024 . ; "UK nuclear fusion reactor sets new world record for energy output" . New Scientist . Retrieved 27 May 2024 . ^ UK Oil and Gas Reserves and Resources (PDF) (Report). North Sea Transition Authority. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 January 2025 . Retrieved 1 February 2025 . ^ "North Sea oil and gas claims fact-checked" . BBC . 22 January 2024. Archived from the original on 1 February 2025 . Retrieved 1 February 2025 . ^ "UK's last fracking wells to be filled with cement despite dwindling gas stocks" . City AM . 29 January 2025. Archived from the original on 1 February 2025 . Retrieved 1 February 2025 . ^ "Sewage Treatment in the UK" (PDF) . assets.publishing.service.gov.uk . DEFRA. March 2022. p. 3. PB 6655 . Retrieved 8 April 2023 . ^ "Environment Agency" . Archived from the original on 25 November 2009. ^ "About Us" . niwater.com . Retrieved 29 August 2020 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). Read more on Wikipedia →

Culture Main article: Culture of the United Kingdom Further information: Culture of England , Culture of Scotland , Culture of Wales , and Culture of Northern Ireland The culture of the United Kingdom is influenced by the nation's island status, its history, and being a political union of four countries with each preserving distinctive traditions, customs and symbolism. British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies , in particular the United States, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and Ireland, a common culture known as the Anglosphere. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] Most of its former colonies are Commonwealth countries, bonded by a shared British inheritance. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] A global survey in 2024 ranked the UK third in the 'Most Influential Countries' rankings, behind the US and China. [ 6 ] Literature and drama Main articles: British literature and Theatre of the United Kingdom Further information: Literature of England , Scottish literature , Welsh literature , and Literature of Northern Ireland British literature includes that associated with the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands . Most British literature is in English. In 2022, 669 million physical books were sold in the UK, the most ever. [ 7 ] Britain is renowned for children's literature ; writers include Daniel Defoe , Rudyard Kipling , Lewis Carroll and Beatrix Potter , who also illustrated her own books. Other writers include A. A. Milne , Enid Blyton , J. R. R. Tolkien , Roald Dahl , Terry Pratchett and J. K. Rowling , who wrote Harry Potter , the best-selling book series of all time. [ 8 ] The playwright and poet William Shakespeare is generally regarded as the greatest dramatist ever and the national poet of England. [ 9 ] Theatre of United Kingdom plays an important part in British culture and has had a vibrant tradition of theatre since the Renaissance with roots going back to the Roman occupation. Other important figures in the literature of England are Geoffrey Chaucer , known for The Canterbury Tales , the poet William Wordsworth , and other Romantic poets , also the novelists Charles Dickens , H. G. Wells , George Orwell , Aldous Huxley and Ian Fleming . The 20th-century English crime writer Agatha Christie is the best-selling novelist in history. [ 10 ] Twelve of the top 25 of 100 novels by British writers chosen by a BBC poll of global critics were written by women; these included works by George Eliot , Virginia Woolf , Charlotte Brontë , Emily Brontë , Mary Shelley , Jane Austen , Doris Lessing and Zadie Smith . [ 11 ] Scottish literature includes Arthur Conan Doyle (the creator of Sherlock Holmes ), Sir Walter Scott , J. M. Barrie , Robert Louis Stevenson (whose novel Treasure Island strongly influenced the portrayal of pirates in the arts and popular culture ), and the poet Robert Burns , who is considered the national poet of Scotland. More recently Hugh MacDiarmid and Neil M. Gunn contributed to the Scottish Renaissance , with grimmer works from Ian Rankin and Iain Banks . Edinburgh was UNESCO's first worldwide City of Literature . [ 12 ] Welsh literature includes Britain's oldest known poem, Y Gododdin , most likely composed in the late 6th century. It was written in Cumbric or Old Welsh and contains the earliest known reference to King Arthur . [ 13 ] The Arthurian legend was further developed by Geoffrey of Monmouth . [ 14 ] Dafydd ap Gwilym ( fl.  1320–1370) is widely regarded as one of the greatest European poets of his age. [ 15 ] Daniel Owen is credited as the first Welsh-language novelist, publishing Rhys Lewis in 1885. The best-known of the Anglo-Welsh poets are Dylan Thomas and R. S. Thomas , the latter nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1996. Leading Welsh novelists of the twentieth century include Richard Llewellyn and Kate Roberts . [ 16 ] [ 17 ] Northern Ireland's most popular writer is C. S. Lewis , who was born in Belfast and wrote The Chronicles of Narnia . [ 18 ] Irish writers, living at a time when all of Ireland was part of the United Kingdom, include Oscar Wilde , [ 19 ] Bram Stoker (who wrote Dracula ) [ 20 ] and George Bernard Shaw . [ 21 ] There have been many authors whose origins were from outside the United Kingdom but who moved to the UK, including Joseph Conrad , [ 22 ] T. S. Eliot , [ 23 ] Kazuo Ishiguro , [ 24 ] Sir Salman Rushdie [ 25 ] and Ezra Pound . [ 26 ] Philosophy Main article: British philosophy The United Kingdom is famous for " British Empiricism ", a branch of the philosophy that states that only knowledge verified by experience is valid, and 'Scottish Philosophy', sometimes referred to as the ' Scottish School of Common Sense '. [ 27 ] The most famous philosophers of British Empiricism are John Locke , George Berkeley [ a ] and David Hume ; while Dugald Stewart , Thomas Reid and William Hamilton were major exponents of the Scottish "common sense" school. Two Britons are also notable for the ethical theory of utilitarianism , a moral philosophy first used by Jeremy Bentham and later by John Stuart Mill in his short work Utilitarianism . [ 28 ] Media Main articles: Media of the United Kingdom and Censorship in the United Kingdom Further information: Media of England , Media of Scotland , Media of Wales , and Media of Northern Ireland The BBC , founded in 1922, is the United Kingdom's publicly funded radio, television and Internet broadcasting corporation, and is the oldest and largest broadcaster in the world. [ 29 ] [ 30 ] [ 31 ] It operates television and radio stations across the UK and abroad and its domestic services are funded by the television licence . [ 32 ] The BBC World Service is an international broadcaster owned and operated by the BBC, and the world's largest. [ 33 ] It broadcasts radio news, speech and discussions in more than 40 languages. [ 34 ] Other major players in the UK media include ITV , which operates 11 of the 15 regional television broadcasters that make up the ITV Network , [ 35 ] and Sky . [ 36 ] Newspapers produced in the United Kingdom include the Daily Mail , The Guardian , The Telegraph , The Times , and the Financial Times . [ 37 ] Magazines and journals published in the United Kingdom that have achieved worldwide circulation include The Spectator , The Economist , New Statesman and Radio Times . MediaCityUK in Salford , Greater Manchester , is one of the largest media production facilities in Europe. London dominates the media sector in the UK: national newspapers and television and radio are largely based there, although MediaCityUK in Manchester is also a significant national media centre. Edinburgh and Glasgow, and Cardiff, are important centres of newspaper and broadcasting production in Scotland and Wales, respectively. [ 38 ] The UK publishing sector, including books, directories and databases, journals, magazines and business media, newspapers and news agencies, has a combined turnover of around £20 billion and employs 167,000 people. [ 39 ] In 2015 the UK published 2,710 book titles per million inhabitants, more than any other country, with much of this exported to other Anglophone countries. [ 40 ] In 2010, 82.5 per cent of the UK population were Internet users, the highest proportion amongst the 20 countries with the largest total number of users in that year. [ 41 ] The British video game industry is the largest in Europe, and since 2022 the UK has the largest video game market in Europe by sales, surpassing Germany . [ 42 ] It is the world's third-largest producer of video games after Japan and the United States . [ 43 ] Visual art Main articles: Art of the United Kingdom and Architecture of the United Kingdom The Angel of the North sculpture by Antony Gormley has become a symbol of Northern England . Major British artists include the Romantic artists William Blake , John Constable , Samuel Palmer , and J. M. W. Turner ; the portrait painters Sir Joshua Reynolds and Lucian Freud ; the landscape artists Thomas Gainsborough and L. S. Lowry ; the pioneer of the Arts and Crafts movement William Morris ; the figurative painter Francis Bacon ; the Pop artists Peter Blake , Richard Hamilton and David Hockney ; the pioneers of conceptual art movement Art & Language ; [ 44 ] the collaborative duo Gilbert and George ; the abstract artist Howard Hodgkin ; and the sculptors Antony Gormley , Anish Kapoor and Henry Moore . During the late 1980s and 1990s the Saatchi Gallery in London helped to bring to public attention a group of multi-genre artists who would become known as the " Young British Artists ": Damien Hirst , Chris Ofili , Rachel Whiteread , Tracey Emin , Mark Wallinger , Steve McQueen , Sam Taylor-Wood and the Chapman Brothers are amongst the better-known members of this loosely affiliated movement. The Royal Academy in London is a key organisation for the promotion of the visual arts in the United Kingdom. Major schools of art in the UK include: the six-school University of the Arts London , which includes the Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design and Chelsea College of Art and Design ; Goldsmiths, University of London ; the Slade School of Fine Art (part of University College London ); the Glasgow School of Art ; the Royal College of Art ; and The Ruskin School of Drawing and Fine Art (part of the University of Oxford). The Courtauld Institute of Art is a leading centre for the teaching of the history of art . Important art galleries in the United Kingdom include the National Gallery , National Portrait Gallery , Tate Britain , and Tate Modern (the most-visited modern art gallery in the world, with around 4.7 million visitors per year). [ 45 ] Music Main article: Music of the United Kingdom Further information: Music of England , Music of Scotland , Music of Wales , and Music of Northern Ireland The Proms is a classical music festival, most closely associated with Henry Wood and held at the Royal Albert Hall in London, which regularly plays music by Edward Elgar and other British composers. Various styles of music have become popular in the UK, including the folk music of England , Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland . English folk features melodic ballads with strong lyrics and music for country dancing often using accordion and fiddles. [ 46 ] Scottish folk features bagpipes and fiddles playing traditional dance tunes with bouncy tempos. [ 47 ] Welsh folk has harps and vocal harmonies often sung in Welsh. [ 48 ] Northern Irish folk blends fiddles with flutes merging Scottish and Irish influences. [ 49 ] Historically, there has been Renaissance music from the Tudor period , with masses , madrigals and lute music by Thomas Tallis , John Taverner , William Byrd , Orlando Gibbons and John Dowland . After the Stuart Restoration , an English tradition of dramatic masques , anthems and airs became established, led by Henry Purcell , followed by Thomas Arne and others. George Frideric Handel composed the anthem Zadok the Priest for the coronation of George II ; it became the traditional ceremonial music for anointing all future monarchs. Handel's many oratorios, such as his famous Messiah , were written in English. [ 50 ] In the second half of the 19th century, Arthur Sullivan and his librettist W. S. Gilbert wrote their popular Savoy operas , and Edward Elgar composed a wide range of music. Increasingly, composers became inspired by the English countryside and its folk music , notably Gustav Holst , Ralph Vaughan Williams and Benjamin Britten , a pioneer of modern British opera. Amongst the many post-war composers, some of the most notable have made their own personal choice of musical identity: Peter Maxwell Davies (Orkney), Harrison Birtwistle (mythological), and John Tavener (religious). [ 51 ] Recent classical singers include Alfie Boe , Bryn Terfel , Katherine Jenkins , Michael Ball , Roderick Williams , Russell Watson and Sarah Brightman , while Nicola Benedetti and Nigel Kennedy are renowned for their violin ability. [ 52 ] According to The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians the term " pop music " originated in Britain in the mid-1950s to describe rock and roll 's fusion with the "new youth music". [ 53 ] The Oxford Dictionary of Music states that artists such as the Beatles and the Rolling Stones drove pop music to the forefront of popular music in the early 1960s. [ 54 ] Birmingham became known as the birthplace of heavy metal , with the band Black Sabbath starting there in the 1960s. [ 55 ] In the following years, Britain took part in the development of rock music , with British acts pioneering hard rock , [ 56 ] raga rock , heavy metal, [ 57 ] space rock , glam rock , [ 58 ] Gothic rock , [ 59 ] psychedelic rock [ 60 ] and punk rock . [ 61 ] British acts also developed neo soul and created dubstep . [ 62 ] The UK has produced some of the most prominent English-speaking rappers along with the United States, including Stormzy , Kano , Yxng Bane , Ramz , Little Simz and Skepta . [ 63 ] The OVO Hydro in Glasgow , Scotland, a 14,500-capacity arena consistently ranked within the top ten busiest venues worldwide [ 64 ] The Beatles have international sales of over 1 billion units and are the biggest-selling band , in addition to being widely regarded as the most influential band in the history of popular music. [ 65 ] [ 66 ] [ 67 ] [ 68 ] Other prominent British contributors to popular music over the last 50 years include the Rolling Stones, Pink Floyd , Queen , Led Zeppelin , the Bee Gees and Elton John , all of whom have worldwide record sales of 200 million or more. [ 69 ] The Brit Awards are the BPI 's annual music awards, and some of the British recipients of the Outstanding Contribution to Music award include the Who , David Bowie , Eric Clapton , Rod Stewart , the Police and Fleetwood Mac (who are a British-American band). [ 70 ] More recent UK music acts that have had international success include George Michael , Oasis , Spice Girls , Radiohead , Coldplay , Arctic Monkeys , Robbie Williams , Amy Winehouse , Susan Boyle , Adele , Ed Sheeran , Lewis Capaldi , One Direction , Harry Styles and Dua Lipa . [ 71 ] As of 2024 the UK is the world's third-largest music market behind the US and Japan, [ 72 ] and in 2021 was the second-largest exporter of music behind the US. [ 73 ] Many British cities are known for their music. Acts from Liverpool have had 54 UK chart number 1 hit singles, more per capita than any other city worldwide. [ 74 ] Glasgow's contribution was recognised in 2008 when it was named a City of Music by UNESCO . [ 75 ] Manchester played a role in the spread of dance music such as acid house , and from the mid-1990s, Britpop . London and Bristol are closely associated with the origins of electronic music sub-genres such as drum and bass and trip hop . [ 76 ] UK dance music traces its roots back to the black British Sound System Culture and the New Age Traveller movement of the 60s and 70s, [ 77 ] it also has influences from the Chicago House and Detroit Techno scenes. In the late 80's, dance music exploded with Rave culture mainly Acid House tracks which were made mainstream with novelty records (such as Smart E's Sesame's Treet and the Prodigy's Charly ) [ 78 ] and the Balearic sound brought back from the Ibiza club scene. This led on to genres such as UK Garage , Speed Garage , Drum and bass , Jungle , Trance , and Dubstep . Influential UK dance acts past and present include 808 State , Orbital , the Prodigy , Underworld , Roni Size , Leftfield , Massive Attack , Groove Armada , Fatboy Slim , Faithless , Basement Jaxx , Chemical Brothers , Disclosure , Calvin Harris , and Fred Again . [ 79 ] Other influential UK DJs include Judge Jules , Pete Tong , Carl Cox , Paul Oakenfold , John Digweed and Sasha . [ 80 ] Cinema Main articles: Cinema of the United Kingdom and Independent cinema in the United Kingdom The United Kingdom has had a considerable influence on the history of the cinema. The British directors Alfred Hitchcock , whose film Vertigo is considered by some critics as the best film of all time , [ 81 ] and David Lean , who directed Lawrence of Arabia , are amongst the most critically acclaimed directors ever. [ 82 ] Recent popular directors include Christopher Nolan , Sam Mendes , Steve McQueen , Richard Curtis , Danny Boyle , Tony Scott and Ridley Scott . [ 83 ] [ 84 ] [ 85 ] [ 86 ] Many British actors have achieved international fame and critical success. Some of the most commercially successful films have been produced in the United Kingdom, including two of the highest-grossing film franchises ( Harry Potter and James Bond ). [ 87 ] 2019 was a particularly good year for British films which grossed around £10.3 billion globally, accounting for 28.7 per cent of global box office revenue. [ 88 ] UK box-office takings totalled £1.25 billion in 2019, with around 176 million admissions. [ 89 ] In 2023 UK film and television studio stage space stood at 6.9 million sq ft, with 1 million sq ft added in the past year with more in development. [ 90 ] The annual BAFTA Film Awards are hosted by the British Academy of Film and Television Arts . [ 91 ] Cuisine Main article: British cuisine Further information: English cuisine , Scottish cuisine , Welsh cuisine , and Northern Irish cuisine Fish and chips , a traditional British dish, served with lemon, tartar sauce and mushy peas British cuisine developed from influences reflective of its land, settlements, arrivals of new settlers and immigrants , trade and colonialism. The food of England has historically been characterised by simplicity of approach and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce. [ 92 ] The traditional Sunday roast is one example, featuring a roast joint (usually of beef), lamb, chicken, or pork, often free range (and generally grass-fed, in the case of beef). Roasts are served with either roasted or boiled vegetables, Yorkshire pudding and gravy . Other traditional meals include meat pies and stews . A poll by YouGov in 2019 rated classic British food, with more than 80 per cent liking the Sunday roast, Yorkshire pudding, fish and chips , crumpets and the full English breakfast . [ 93 ] The UK is home to a large selection of fine dining . The nation hosts multiple restaurant guides such as The Good Food Guide and Harden's . In 2025 there were 197 restaurants with a Michelin Star ; ten of which have received a three-star rating . [ 94 ] Sweet foods are common within British cuisine, and there is a long list of British desserts . Afternoon tea is a light afternoon meal served with tea in tea rooms and hotels around the United Kingdom, with the tradition dating back to around 1840. [ 95 ] A poll from July 2024 revealed that 3 per cent of the UK population follow a vegan diet, 6 per cent are vegetarian , and 13 per cent identify as flexitarian (following a mainly vegetarian diet). [ 96 ] The British Empire facilitated knowledge of Indian cuisine with its "strong, penetrating spices and herbs". British cuisine has absorbed the cultural influence of those who have settled in Britain, producing hybrid dishes, such as chicken tikka masala . [ 97 ] The British have embraced world cuisine and regularly eat recipes or fast food from other European countries, the Caribbean and Asia. The UK has many gastropubs and is the birthplace of many alcoholic drinks including several beer styles such as pale ale , India pale ale , bitter , brown ale , porter , and stout . The number of craft beers and microbreweries has expanded rapidly in the last two decades. [ 98 ] Other popular alcoholic drinks produced in the UK include Scotch whisky , English wine , gin , perry and cider . Sport Main articles: Sport in the United Kingdom and Great Britain at the Olympics Further information: Sport in England , Sport in Scotland , Sport in Wales , and Sport in Northern Ireland The 2023 FA Cup final at Wembley Stadium between Manchester City and Manchester United Golf originated from the Old Course at St Andrews in Scotland. Association football , tennis , table tennis , badminton , rugby union , rugby league , rugby sevens , golf , boxing , netball , water polo , field hockey , billiards , darts , rowing , rounders and cricket originated or were substantially developed in the UK, with the rules and codes of many modern sports invented and codified in the Victorian era. [ b ] A poll in 2003 found that football is the most popular sport in the UK. [ 101 ] England is recognised by FIFA as the birthplace of club football, and the Football Association is the oldest of its kind, with the rules of football first drafted in 1863 by Ebenezer Cobb Morley . [ 102 ] Each of the Home Nations (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland) has its own football association, national team and league system , and each is individually a governing member of the International Football Association Board alongside FIFA. The English top division, the Premier League , is the most watched football league in the world. [ 103 ] The first international football match was contested by England and Scotland on 30 November 1872. [ 104 ] England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland usually compete as separate countries in international competitions. [ 105 ] In 2003 rugby union was ranked the second-most-popular sport in the UK. [ 101 ] The sport was created in Rugby School , Warwickshire, and the first rugby international took place on 27 March 1871 between England and Scotland . [ 106 ] [ 107 ] England, Scotland, Wales , Ireland , France and Italy compete in the Six Nations Championship , the premier international rugby union tournament in the northern hemisphere. Sports governing bodies in England , Scotland , Wales and Ireland organise and regulate the game separately. [ 108 ] Every four years the Home Nations make a combined team known as the British and Irish Lions which tours Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. The United Kingdom hosted the Summer Olympic Games in 1908 , 1948 and 2012 , with London acting as the host city on all three occasions. Birmingham hosted the 2022 Commonwealth Games , the seventh time a country of the United Kingdom hosted the Commonwealth Games (England, Scotland and Wales have each hosted the Commonwealth Games at least once). [ 109 ] Symbols Main article: Symbols of the United Kingdom Union Jack flags on The Mall , London The flag of the United Kingdom is the Union Flag , which is also referred to as the Union Jack. [ 110 ] It was created in 1606 by the superimposition of the flag of England , representing Saint George , on the flag of Scotland , representing Saint Andrew , and was updated in 1801 with the addition of Saint Patrick's Flag . [ 111 ] Wales is not represented in the Union Flag, as Wales had been conquered and annexed to England prior to the formation of the United Kingdom. The possibility of redesigning the Union Flag to include representation of Wales was discussed in 2007. [ 112 ] The national anthem of the United Kingdom is " God Save the King ", with "King" replaced with "Queen" in the lyrics whenever the monarch is a woman. Britannia is a national personification of the United Kingdom, originating from Roman Britain . [ 113 ] Beside The Lion and the Unicorn and the dragon of heraldry, the bulldog is an iconic animal and commonly represented with the Union Flag. [ 114 ] A rare personification is a character originating in the 18th century, John Bull . [ 115 ] England , Wales and Scotland each have their own national symbols, including their national flags. Northern Ireland also has symbols, many of which are shared with the Republic of Ireland . ^ Julian Go (2007). "A Globalizing Constitutionalism?, Views from the Postcolony, 1945–2000" . In Arjomand, Saïd Amir (ed.). Constitutionalism and political reconstruction . Brill. pp.  92– 94. ISBN   978-90-04-15174-1 . ^ Ferguson 2004 , p. 307. ^ "The Commonwealth" . New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade . Retrieved 8 January 2024 . ^ "Commonwealth of Nations" . UK Parliament . Retrieved 22 February 2026 . ^ Mazrui, Ali Al Amin; Taylor, D.; Bradley, Kenneth (1967). Anglo-African Commonwealth . Pergamon. pp.  40– 41. ISBN   978-0-08-012253-3 . ...in the ultimate analysis, what could a New Zealander have in common with a Jamaican or a Zambian, if not the bonds of a shared British-ness? ^ "Most Influential Countries" . U.S. News & World Report . Retrieved 22 September 2025 . ^ "UK publishing industry reports record-breaking year in 2022" . The Guardian . 17 April 2023 . Retrieved 9 May 2024 . ^ "Best-selling Book Series Of All Time" . Wordsrated. 20 July 2023 . Retrieved 18 May 2024 . ^ "William Shakespeare (English author)" . Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved 26 February 2006 . ; MSN Encarta Encyclopedia article on Shakespeare . Archived from the original on 9 February 2006 . Retrieved 26 February 2006 . ; "William Shakespeare" . TheFreeDictionary.com . Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia . Retrieved 26 February 2006 . ^ "Mystery of Christie's success is solved" . The Telegraph . London. 19 December 2005. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022 . Retrieved 14 November 2010 . ^ Ciabattari, Jane (December 2015). "The 25 greatest British novels" . BBC Culture . Retrieved 29 December 2021 . ^ "Edinburgh, United Kingdom, UNESCO City of Literature" . Unesco . 2004. Archived from the original on 28 May 2013 . Retrieved 9 March 2015 . ^ "Early Welsh poetry" . BBC Wales . Retrieved 29 December 2010 . ^ Lang, Andrew (2003) [1913]. History of English Literature from Beowulf to Swinburne . Holicong, PA: Wildside Press. p. 42. ISBN   978-0-8095-3229-2 . ^ "Dafydd ap Gwilym" . Academi.org . 2011. Archived from the original on 24 March 2012 . Retrieved 3 January 2011 . Dafydd ap Gwilym is widely regarded as one of the greatest Welsh poets of all time, and amongst the leading European poets of the Middle Ages. ^ "True birthplace of Wales's literary hero" . BBC News . 5 December 1999. Archived from the original on 16 March 2020 . Retrieved 28 April 2012 . ^ "Kate Roberts: Biography" . BBC Wales . Archived from the original on 8 March 2013 . Retrieved 19 February 2017 . ^ "The Chronicles of Narnia Book Series Statistics" . Wordsrated. 19 July 2023 . Retrieved 18 May 2024 . ^ Varty, Anne (2014). A Preface to Oscar Wilde . Routledge. pp.  231–232 . ISBN   978-1-317-89231-1 . ; "Oscar Wilde" . Encyclopedia.com . Cengage . Retrieved 10 December 2019 . ^ Moss, Joyce (2001). British and Irish Literature and Its Times: The Victorian Era to the Present (1837–) . Gale Group. p.  107 . ISBN   978-0-7876-3729-3 . ^ Holroyd, Michael (1989). Bernard Shaw, Volume 2: 1898–1918: The Pursuit of Power . Chatto & Windus. p.  384 . ISBN   978-0-7011-3350-4 . ; "G B Shaw" . Discovering Literature: 20th century . British Library . Archived from the original on 9 August 2020 . Retrieved 10 December 2019 . ^ Middleton, Tim (2006). Joseph Conrad . Routledge. p. 159. ISBN   978-0-415-26851-6 . ^ Cooper, John Xiros (2006). The Cambridge Introduction to T. S. Eliot . Cambridge University Press. p. 111. ISBN   978-1-139-45790-3 . ^ Sim, Wai-chew (2009). Kazuo Ishiguro . Routledge. p. 201. ISBN   978-1-135-19867-1 . ^ "Salman Rushdie" . Oxford Reference . Oxford University Press . Retrieved 10 December 2019 . ^ Campbell, James (17 May 2008). "Home from home" . The Guardian . Retrieved 10 December 2019 . ; Nadel, Ira (2004). Ezra Pound: A Literary Life . Palgrave Macmillan. p. 90. ISBN   978-0-230-37881-0 . ^ Fieser, James, ed. (2000). A bibliography of Scottish common sense philosophy: Sources and origins (PDF) . Bristol: Thoemmes Press. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 April 2023 . Retrieved 17 December 2010 . ^ Palmer, Michael (1999). Moral Problems in Medicine: A Practical Coursebook . Cambridge: Lutterworth Press. p. 66. ISBN   978-0-7188-2978-0 . ; Scarre, Geoffrey (1995). Utilitarianism . London: Routledge. p. 82. ISBN   978-0-415-12197-2 . ^ "BBC: World's largest broadcaster & Most trusted media brand" . Media Newsline. Archived from the original on 5 October 2010 . Retrieved 23 September 2010 . ^ "Digital license" . Prospect. Archived from the original on 7 November 2011 . Retrieved 9 March 2015 . ^ "About the BBC – What is the BBC" . BBC Online . Archived from the original on 16 January 2010 . Retrieved 9 March 2015 . ^ "BBC: World's largest broadcaster & Most trusted media brand" . Media Newsline . 13 August 2009. Archived from the original on 10 May 2011 . Retrieved 19 June 2011 . ; "TV Licence Fee: facts & figures" . BBC Press Office. April 2010. Archived from the original on 27 April 2011. ^ "Microsoft Word – The Work of the BBC World Service 2008–09 HC 334 FINAL.doc" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 October 2020 . Retrieved 16 February 2011 . ^ "News in your language – BBC News" . BBC . ; "BBC World Service" . Facebook.com . ^ "Publications & Policies: The History of ITV" . ITV.com . Archived from the original on 11 April 2011. ^ "Direct Broadcast Satellite Television" . News Corporation . Archived from the original on 4 June 2011. ^ "ABCs: National daily newspaper circulation September 2008" . The Guardian . London. 10 October 2008 . Retrieved 17 October 2008 . ^ William, D. (2010). UK Cities: A Look at Life and Major Cities in England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland . Eastbourne: Gardners Books. ISBN   978-9987-16-021-1 , pp. 22, 46, 109 and 145. ^ "Publishing" . Department of Culture, Media and Sport. Archived from the original on 5 May 2011. ^ "Annual Report 2015–2016" (PDF) . internationalpublishers.org . International Publishers Association. 2016. p. 16. Archived from the original (PDF) on 31 August 2023 . Retrieved 14 January 2021 . ^ "Top 20 countries with the highest number of Internet users" . Internet World Stats . Archived from the original on 10 June 2011 . Retrieved 19 June 2011 . ^ Dring, Christopher (12 January 2023). "European console and PC game sales fall 7.1% in 2022" . GamesIndustry.biz . Retrieved 30 September 2023 . ^ "About UK Video Games Industry" . TIGA . Retrieved 6 June 2023 . ^ Tate. "Art & Language – Art Term | Tate" . Tate . Retrieved 8 September 2018 . ^ Bayley, Stephen (24 April 2010). "The startling success of Tate Modern" . The Times . London. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011 . Retrieved 19 January 2011 . (subscription required) ^ "Songs of England" . Retrieved 15 September 2025 . ^ "The influence of traditional Scottish Music" . Retrieved 15 September 2025 . ^ "Celtic connections: the story of folk music in Wales" . 17 February 2020 . Retrieved 15 September 2025 . ^ "Why you should experience traditional music in Ireland" . Retrieved 15 September 2025 . ^ "British Citizen by Act of Parliament: George Frideric Handel" . UK Parliament. 20 July 2009. Archived from the original on 26 March 2010 . Retrieved 9 March 2015 . ; Andrews, John (14 April 2006). "Handel all'inglese" . Playbill . New York. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008 . Retrieved 11 September 2009 . ^ Iemperley, Nicholas (2002). "Great Britain" . Grove Music Online (8th ed.). Oxford University Press . ISBN   978-1-56159-263-0 . (subscription, Wikilibrary access, or UK public library membership required) ; Banfield, Stephen; Russell, Ian (2001). "England (i)" . Grove Music Online (8th ed.). Oxford University Press . ISBN   978-1-56159-263-0 . (subscription, Wikilibrary access, or UK public library membership required) ; Lewis, Geraint; Davies, Lyn; Kinney, Phyllis (2001). "Wales" . Grove Music Online (8th ed.). Oxford University Press . ISBN   978-1-56159-263-0 . (subscription, Wikilibrary access, or UK public library membership required) ; Elliott, Kenneth; Collinson, Francis; Duesenberry, Peggy (2001). "Scotland" . Grove Music Online (8th ed.). Oxford University Press . ISBN   978-1-56159-263-0 . (subscription, Wikilibrary access, or UK public library membership required) ; White, Harry; Carolan, Nicholas (2011). "Ireland" . Grove Music Online (8th ed.). Oxford University Press . ISBN   978-1-56159-263-0 . (subscription, Wikilibrary access, or UK public library membership required) ; "British 20th century composers" . BBC . Retrieved 21 April 2022 . ^ "30 of the greatest violinists on record" . Gramophone . 21 June 2022 . Retrieved 4 March 2024 . ; "Katherine Jenkins has officially sold the most classical albums this century" . Classic FM . 1 January 2020 . Retrieved 4 March 2024 . ; "Who is Roderick Williams, the British baritone and composer at the King's coronation?" . Classic FM . 6 May 2023 . Retrieved 4 March 2024 . ; "Michael Ball" . English National Opera . 23 February 2024 . Retrieved 4 March 2024 . ; "Alfie Bow" . Classic FM . Retrieved 4 March 2024 . ; "Sarah Brightman facts" . Smooth Radio . 11 July 2023 . Retrieved 4 March 2024 . ^ R. Middleton, et al., "Pop" , Grove music online , retrieved 14 March 2010. (subscription required) Archived 13 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine ^ "Pop", The Oxford Dictionary of Music , retrieved 9 March 2010. (subscription required) Archived 12 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine ^ Allsop, Laura (1 July 2011). "Birmingham, England ... the unlikely birthplace of heavy metal" . CNN . Retrieved 28 February 2022 ; Bentley, David (4 June 2013). "Midlands rocks! How Birmingham's industrial heritage made it the birthplace of heavy metal" . Birmingham Post . Retrieved 28 February 2022 . ^ "The Rolling Stones | Biography & History" . AllMusic . Retrieved 22 July 2020 . ^ Tom Larson (2004). History of Rock and Roll . Kendall/Hunt Pub. pp.  183– 187. ISBN   978-0-7872-9969-9 . ^ "Glam Rock" . Encarta . Archived from the original on 28 August 2009 . Retrieved 21 December 2008 . ^ "NME Originals: Goth" . NME . 2004. Archived from the original on 26 January 2008 . Retrieved 30 September 2013 . ^ "Pop/Rock » Psychedelic/Garage" . AllMusic . Retrieved 6 August 2020 . ^ Charles M. Young (20 October 1977). "Rock is Sick and Living in London" . Rolling Stone . Archived from the original on 28 March 2025 . Retrieved 23 February 2026 . ^ Henderson, Alex (1 August 2003). British Soul . Allmusic. Retrieved 6 March 2011.; AllMusic – Dubstep Archived 23 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine "Absorbed and transfigured elements of techno, drum'n' bass and dub"; Goldman, Vivien (31 January 2012). "Local Groove Does Good: The Story Of Trip-Hop's Rise From Bristol" . NPR . ^ "5 U.K. Rappers Primed to Take Over America in 2018" . Billboard . Retrieved 18 June 2018 . ^ "OVO Hydro | SEC" . www.sec.co.uk . Retrieved 9 February 2026 . ^ "1960–1969" . EMI Group. Archived from the original on 25 April 2014 . Retrieved 9 March 2015 . ^ "Paul At Fifty" . Time . New York. 8 June 1992. Archived from the original on 6 February 2009. ^ Most Successful Group The Guinness Book of Records 1999, p. 230. Retrieved 19 March 2011. ^ "Beatles a big hit with downloads" . Belfast Telegraph . 25 November 2010 . Retrieved 16 May 2011 . ^ "British rock legends get their own music title for PlayStation3 and PlayStation2" (Press release). EMI . 2 February 2009. Archived from the original on 23 April 2014 . Retrieved 9 March 2015 . ; Khan, Urmee (17 July 2008). "Sir Elton John honoured in Ben and Jerry ice cream" . The Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on 30 July 2008. ; Alleyne, Richard (19 April 2008). "Rock group Led Zeppelin to reunite" . The Telegraph . London. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022 . Retrieved 31 March 2010 . ; "Floyd 'true to Barrett's legacy' " . BBC News . 11 July 2006. ; Holton, Kate (17 January 2008). "Rolling Stones sign Universal album deal" . Reuters . Retrieved 26 October 2008 . ; Walker, Tim (12 May 2008). "Jive talkin': Why Robin Gibb wants more respect for the Bee Gees" . Independent . London. Archived from the original on 13 October 2011 . Retrieved 26 October 2008 . ^ "Brit awards winners list 2012: every winner since 1977" . The Guardian (London). Retrieved 28 February 2012. ^ "Harry Styles Has Weathered the Post-Boy Band Storm Better Than Most" . Consequence of Sound . 12 January 2020 . Retrieved 15 September 2020 . ; "10 Years of One Direction: The Story of the World's Biggest Boy Band, Told With the Fans Who Made It Happen" . Billboard . 16 July 2020 . Retrieved 15 September 2020 . ; Corner, Lewis (16 February 2012). "Adele, Coldplay biggest-selling UK artists worldwide in 2011" . Digital Spy . Retrieved 22 March 2012 . ; Magliola, Anna Sky (30 November 2022). "Ed Sheeran's career journey: From street busker to global superstar" . PlanetRadio.co.uk . Retrieved 7 January 2023 . ; "Dua Lipa, 77.5M Monthly listeners" . Spotify. 6 May 2024. ^ Paine, Andre (10 September 2024). "IFPI report reveals EU risks falling behind in global market - UK still among top music exporters" . Music Week . Retrieved 17 November 2025 . ^ Savage, Mark (16 June 2021). "British music exports reach a record high" . BBC . Retrieved 17 November 2025 . ^ Hughes, Mark (14 January 2008). "A tale of two cities of culture: Liverpool vs Stavanger" . Independent . London. Archived from the original on 18 June 2018 . Retrieved 2 August 2009 . ^ "Glasgow gets city of music honour" . BBC News . 20 August 2008 . Retrieved 2 August 2009 . ^ "Out of the melting pot: The origins and evolution of drum'n'bass" . Red Bull . 25 June 2020 . Retrieved 1 August 2021 . ^ "Parties, protest and police: the neglected histories of UK dance music" . Dazed . 3 August 2023 . Retrieved 27 February 2024 . ^ "Rave" . Oxford Music Online . 20 January 2001 . Retrieved 27 February 2024 . ^ "Mixmag's Greatest Dance Act of all Time Revealed" . 19 January 2012. Archived from the original on 14 April 2012. ; "Fred Again: who is the DJ who has thousands queuing for a 'secret rave' at the Sydney Opera House?" . The Guardian . 26 February 2024 . Retrieved 27 February 2024 . ^ "Top 100 DJs Poll results 2003" . Archived from the original on 7 December 2003. ^ "Vertigo is named 'greatest film of all time' " . BBC News . 2 August 2012 . Retrieved 18 August 2012 . ^ "The Directors' Top Ten Directors" . British Film Institute. Archived from the original on 17 May 2012. ^ "The 24 Best British Directors of All Time" . Movieweb. 13 May 2023 . Retrieved 17 February 2024 . ^ "Top 22 U.K. Film Directors" . IMDb . Retrieved 17 February 2024 . ^ "5 of the best ... Richard Curtis films" . The Times . 17 April 2024 . Retrieved 4 June 2024 . ^ "The UK's top 50 film directors" . Televisual. 23 May 2012 . Retrieved 17 February 2024 . ^ "Harry Potter becomes highest-grossing film franchise" . The Guardian . London. 11 September 2007 . Retrieved 2 November 2010 . ^ "UK Film Industry Statistics 2023" . 10 April 2023. Archived from the original on 17 February 2024 . Retrieved 17 February 2024 . ^ "The UK box office in 2019" (PDF) . Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 February 2024 . Retrieved 17 February 2024 . ^ "UK Film and Television Studios Market Report" (PDF) . Knight Frank . Retrieved 17 February 2024 . ^ "Baftas fuel Oscars race" . BBC News . 26 February 2001 . Retrieved 14 February 2011 . ^ Else, David (2007). Inghilterra . EDT srl. p. 76. ISBN   978-88-6040-136-6 . ^ "Classic British cuisine ranked by Britons" . 11 June 2019. [ dead link ] ^ "United Kingdom" . Michelin Guide . Retrieved 12 May 2025 . ^ "The tea-rific history of Victorian afternoon tea" . The British Museum . Retrieved 11 April 2023 . ^ "Dietary choices of Brits (e.g. vegeterian, flexitarian, meat-eater etc)" . YouGov.co.uk . 8 July 2024 . Retrieved 26 November 2024 . ^ "Robin Cook's chicken tikka masala speech" . The Guardian . London. 19 April 2001 . Retrieved 7 September 2021 . ; BBC E-Cyclopedia (20 April 2001). "Chicken tikka masala: Spice and easy does it" . BBC . Retrieved 28 September 2007 . ^ "A guide to British Beer" . Expatica . Retrieved 25 November 2024 . ^ "Opening Ceremony of the Games of the XXX Olympiad" (PDF) . Olympic.org . 27 July 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 August 2013 . Retrieved 30 November 2013 . ^ Mehaffey, John. "Unparalleled Sporting History" . Reuters . London. Archived from the original on 25 May 2017 . Retrieved 30 November 2013 . ^ a b "Rugby Union 'Britain's Second Most Popular Sport' " . Ipsos-Mori. 22 December 2003 . Retrieved 28 April 2013 . ^ Rudd, Alyson (7 April 2008). "The father of football deserves much more" . The Times . London. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011 . Retrieved 29 January 2015 . ; "Sheffield FC: 150 years of history" . FIFA . 24 October 2007. Archived from the original on 25 October 2007 . Retrieved 29 January 2015 . ^ Ebner, Sarah (2 July 2013). "History and time are key to power of football, says Premier League chief" . The Times . London . Retrieved 30 November 2013 . ^ Mitchell, Paul (November 2005). "The first international football match" . BBC Sport Scotland . Retrieved 15 December 2013 . ^ Harlow, Phil (5 August 2008). "Why is there no GB Olympics football team?" . BBC Sport . Retrieved 31 December 2010 . ^ "Six ways the town of Rugby helped change the world" . BBC News . 1 February 2014 . Retrieved 29 January 2015 . ^ Godwin, Terry; Rhys, Chris (1981). The Guinness Book of Rugby Facts & Feats . Guinness Superlatives. p. 10. ISBN   978-0-85112-214-4 . ^ Louw, Jaco; Nesbit, Derrick (2008). The Girlfriends Guide to Rugby . Johannesburg: South Publishers. ISBN   978-0-620-39541-0 . ^ "The journey of India in Commonwealth Games in 2022" . The Times of India . Retrieved 29 June 2023 . ^ "Union Jack or Union Flag?" . The Flag Institute . Retrieved 26 September 2022 . ^ "college-of-arms.gov.uk" . The College of Arms . Retrieved 14 January 2022 . ^ "Welsh dragon call for Union flag" . BBC News . 27 November 2007 . Retrieved 17 October 2008 . ^ "Britannia on British Coins" . Chard . Retrieved 25 June 2006 . ^ Baker, Steve (2001). Picturing the Beast . University of Illinois Press. p. 52. ISBN   978-0-252-07030-3 . ^ "Who is John Bull" . The Library of Congress . Retrieved 11 January 2022 . Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page ). Read more on Wikipedia →